But is nicotine something you should be afraid of, or is it a powerful and underrated nootropic? 

Let’s dive into the research. 

What Is Nicotine?

Nicotine is an alkaloid; a class of naturally occurring organic compounds produced by plants, containing basic nitrogen atoms (1). Nicotine is found in abundance in tobacco leaves – although it can also be found in smaller doses in other members of the nightshade family, such as tomatoes or potatoes. Nicotine is known for its action as a Central Nervous System (CNS) stimulant, similar in many ways to drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines such as Adderall.

While this category also includes beloved daily-used Methylxanthines (aka caffeine in coffee, theobromine in chocolate and theophylline in tea), nicotine holds the title of the 2nd most abused substance after alcohol – the main representative of CNS depressants (2).

Nicotine, being a highly lipid-soluble molecule, can easily cross the blood-brain barrier, a membrane separating the CNS from systemic circulation (3), and find its way into the brain. This causes the characteristically satisfying effects of smoking such as euphoria, relaxation, and much more which we are going to analyze. 

Fundamentals Of Neurophysiology

Our nervous system is divided into:

• The Central Nervous System (CNS)

• The peripheral Nervous System (PNS). 

The PNS is further divided into the Somatic Nervous System (SoNS), and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

The SoNS includes all the nerves that we can voluntarily control, such as those in our fingers, while the ANS includes everything else that is mandatory for bodily functions and survival but aren’t under our voluntary control, such as our heart rate, arterial pressure, and breathing. 

SANS is responsible for the “Fight or Flight“ response – the neuronal and biochemical changes in our body needed to deal with a threat like an attack from a stranger on the street or a predator in the wild (4).

Immediately your heart beats faster, your pupils dilate, your breathing is noticeably more frequent and the majority of the vessels in your body constrict except the ones supplying blood to your muscles. In parallel, the bodily functions which are not useful in a fight or flight situation, slow down. These functions include digestion, urination, and sexual function. 

This is why men have a difficult time getting an erection when they‘re stressed because the sympathetic nervous system takes over. On the other hand, the process of ejaculation is under the control of the SANS, so being extra nervous will likely mess with an erection but also lead to premature ejaculation.

To the contrary, the PANS promotes the “Rest and Digest” state. This includes increased salivation, gastrointestinal and sexual function, lower metabolism, and basically everything to maintain an energy-saving mode when the body doesn’t have to deal with stressful situations (5).

Nicotine’s Mechanism Of Action 

After nicotine is consumed, it makes its way through the central nervous system and interacts with the brain’s nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). 

Even though nicotine is not produced by our body, it is such a potent agonist of these receptors which neuroscientists named the receptors after. The nicotinic receptors are found in the autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla, neuromuscular junctions, and of course, in our brain (6).

The nicotinic receptors are cholinergic receptors, meaning they respond to acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is one of the most important neurotransmitters, binding to muscarinic receptors, where nicotine has no affinity.

After nicotine binds to the nicotinic presynaptic receptors, it acts as an agonist and activates these receptors, leading to a significant release of many neurotransmitters including dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and even catecholamines from the adrenal medulla like adrenalin. This causes systemic effects in the body and mind.

The release of these neurotransmitters, and primarily of dopamine in brain areas like the Nucleus Accumbens, results in the rewarding and pleasurable effects of nicotine. Whereas this strong neural signal in other primary brain areas plays a significant role in cognitive function and alertness.

There is something interesting about nicotine – in low to medium doses it is a stimulant, but in higher doses, this is reversed and nicotine has a depressive-sedative effect. This phenomenon is known as “Nesbitt’s paradox”, (7) having gotten its name from the doctor who first described it. In doses over 60 mg nicotine dampens neuronal activity leading to respiratory paralysis and eventually death (8).

Uses

Nicotine’s clinical use so far is limited to helping patients quit smoking. A dermal patch or gum is typically used with a low dose of around 4mg of nicotine. This is approximately 2-3x the amount of nicotine contained in one cigarette. This method increases the chances of successfully quitting smoking by 50–60% (9). In the last year, the use of an inhaler has been preferred by an increasing amount of smokers who aim to quit. However, this method carries a few risks – some caused by the rapid absorption of nicotine through millions of lung alveoli (10).

Besides that, another application of nicotine is as a pesticide (11, 12). This is based on the toxic effect of nicotine on small animals, fungi, and pests. According to this research, the applications of nicotine in our everyday life seem to be restricted.

Nicotine As A Nootropic

Keep in mind that so many people choose to smoke as a lifestyle, even though data strongly supports its destructive effects on almost every part and organ of our body.

But even though nicotine consumed through smoking has many bad effects, nicotine itself also has positive ones (especially for the brain). 

It has numerous positive effects on the smoker (at least temporarily); nicotine feels good, it relaxes you, it increases your focus, and may help you think better. 

But is nicotine powerful enough to be considered a nootropic?

Nicotine Improves Short And Long-Term Memory

One of the most interesting findings is nicotine’s effect on memory. Numerous studies have indicated that taking nicotine can help you memorize things better and even enhance your long-term memory. 

Human studies have shown that nicotine strongly affects attention, fine motor skills, working memory, and episodic memory. 

Nicotine affects ‘spike-timing-dependent-potentiation’, which is a process that drives changes in the integrity of neuron cell connections. Studies have also shown that nicotine excites various ‘interneurons’ inside the prefrontal cortex – interneurons being where neuronal signals travel through (13).

Naturally, because nicotine has been shown to improve memory and overall cognition, it has been studied in individuals who are experiencing neurodegeneration. Alzheimer’s disease is a great example. Amyloid plaques are the primary driver of neuron death in Alzheimer’s disease. These plaques drive the gradual deficit in one’s cognitive performance with time. 

Multiple studies show that nicotine can improve memory, attention, and general cognition in people suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. Some studies suggest that nicotine inhibits the development of amyloid plaque formation, but the research is still in its early stages on this specific matter (14), (15).

This sounds amazing and it is. But the question remains, can nicotine be used as a first-line treatment for these patients who don’t really have anything else to help them? 

We simply don’t know. 

In saying that, the current findings in studies that have been carried out do show potential to alleviate age-related cognitive disease, which is exciting!

Nicotine Improves Concentration And Cognition

Nicotine can markedly boost your concentration and cognitive skills (16). You’ve probably noticed smokers light a cigarette when they need to deal with a mentally demanding problem, and data supports this.

Nicotine has been shown to increase concentration and working memory. These changes occur because nicotine activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain – primarily in the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is an area of the brain responsible for higher thinking and executive function. 

Two areas of the brain which relate to the cognitive effects of nicotine include: 

• Prefrontal cortex
• Hippocampus

So why does nicotine improve these areas of the brain?

This may be due to nicotine improving signal-to-noise ratios, or facilitating synaptic plasticity, in specific neural circuits (17).

Topographic imaging studies have helped researchers to identify regions of the brain which nicotine activates. 

These studies are conducted by using magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). 

In one study, researchers provided two groups of participants a task that requires a high level of attention to successfully complete. One group were smokers, and the other group was non-smokers. Results from fMRIV scans showed that smokers had a significantly higher activity level in areas of the brain required to focus on the task which they were completing (18).

Nicotine Improves Attention 

Several studies have indicated that nicotine can improve attention in patients suffering from ADHD. ADHD, formally known as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is a mental disorder typically diagnosed at a young age and characterized by difficulty in paying attention (19). Even though the medical treatment of ADHD is based on other stimulatory drugs like Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and Amphetamines (Adderall), studies have shown that nicotine can increase the attention of these patients and furthermore improve other ADHD symptoms like anxiety and mood disorders (20).

Interestingly, in a double-blind study, nicotine was shown to improve attention in healthy adults. Specifically, nicotine was shown to decrease the number of omission errors during testing, and decrease the variance in “hit reaction time” which is used as a measure of attentiveness (21) (22).

Nicotine Can Enhance Your Intelligence

Okay. This sounds far-fetched, but nicotine could very well increase intelligence, at least in the short term. Despite the fact that I’m skeptical about this one, there are a couple of studies claiming that nicotine can increase your overall intelligence. 

For example, in some research, volunteers who were allowed to smoke before completing an IQ test scored higher than the group which didn’t have this privilege. 

Of course, we can’t exclude the likelihood that this result may have been due to the impaired concentration of smokers who weren’t allowed to smoke, resulting in them having mild withdrawal symptoms. Nevertheless, the above-mentioned findings demonstrated that nicotine increases the efficiency of neural communication between specific brain areas involved in cognition (23).

Nicotine Reduces Stress And Anxiety While Increasing Alertness

This sounds too good to be true but studies show it clearly. Nicotine increases alertness and can also promote feelings of calmness. Of course, how nicotine affects one’s state of mind is subjective to their own neurobiology. For example, a person who is already anxious may experience beneficial calming effects from nicotine, while someone who is too calm may become increasingly alert and anxious (24). Interestingly, the mood-stabilizing effect of nicotine is more potent in females, where it has been shown that it may provoke males. This proposes a sex–dependant way of action, (25) which partly explains the augmented nicotine addiction that has been observed in women (26).

This brings us to the real question: can we take advantage of nicotine’s wholesome effects or is it better to stay away from it?

Side Effects of Nicotine

Serious Addiction: Despite what many websites may claim, blaming the addiction to smoking, nicotine by itself is extremely addictive. Actually, it is as addictive as heroin – that being its biggest disadvantage. Dopamine, glutamate, and GABA all play an important role in nicotine addiction.

In parallel, tolerance develops – aka the downregulation of nicotinic receptors. This results in a decreased amount of dopamine release and therefore reward, as well as an intense urge for the individual to bring their dopamine levels back to normal by taking more nicotine.

Interestingly, research has shown that nicotine dependence is highly contingent on genetics. Research has shown that subtypes of nicotinic receptors, and other genes involved in cognitive function, play an important role in one’s inclination to be addicted to nicotine. This means that someone may not get addicted but another person will.

Nicotine may have some side effects such as:

• Dizziness
• Stomach discomfort
• Throat or mouth soreness
• Watery eyes or dry mouth
• Headaches
• Bowel disturbances

Nicotine can also lead to anorexia, changes in taste, and allergic reactions (27), (28).

Contraindications 

Pay attention to NOT use Nicotine in the following situations:  

• Women during pregnancy OR lactation – Nicotine is highly lipid-soluble making it very easy to pass through the placenta and be transferred to the embryo causing birth defects. Nicotine’s teratogenic effect is a major reason why smoking during pregnancy is forbidden.
• People with Peptic Ulcer disease – Nicotine may delay the healing of peptic ulcers.
• Cancer patients – Even though it is clear that nicotine does not cause cancer, there is some data supporting that it can worsen cancer. Nicotine promotes neoangiogenesis, a process essential for tumor growth, so it is not the best idea to promote nicotine use.
• People suffering from hypertension – Nicotine acts on the adrenal medulla and increases the release of catecholamines, which in turn increases vascular tension and the heart rate.
• People who are diabetic – Nicotine can acutely reduce insulin sensitivity.
• People who are allergic to nicotine.

How To Take It

If you decide to use nicotine, it is essential to start with low doses, and ideally try to maintain these doses at around 1 mg. Most nicotine gum products come in 4 mg doses, but this is too high a dose, especially for a newbie. Dermal patches contain a far higher dosage, but they can easily be cut to the right dosage, making it a great choice. We wouldn’t recommend you use a vapor as its side effects aren’t sufficiently understood yet.

It needs to be clear that nicotine should not be used as an everyday nootropic. You should restrict its use to especially demanding occasions, like an important test or meeting, using it no more than once a week. 

Exceeding this can result in addiction or tolerance, meaning that normal doses will not do their job anymore, and the brain will demand higher and higher dosages. This is due to the downregulation of nicotinic receptors in the brain.

Dosage adjustments are needed in case of severe renal or hepatic impairment. 

At any cost, do NOT take your nicotine by smoking. 

Aside from all the well-known negative effects, studies have shown the reduced thickness of the medial orbitofrontal cortex, a structural modulator of cerebral function and cognition, in smokers (29). 

This means that in the long term, smoking will lead to cognitive impairment.

Summary

Nicotine promotes the release of various neurotransmitters. This can have beneficial effects, like improving memory, concentration ability, relaxing you, or increasing your alertness, and even making you think faster.

Is nicotine a powerful nootropic? Definitely. Should you use it? 

We would suggest not to, unless you really have to and, in that case, always in low doses, not more than a couple of times per week and never ever by smoking.

The post Is Nicotine A Powerful Nootropic? appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

The body of neurogenesis research has continued to accumulate, and clear mental benefits have been associated with it. For people who want their brains to perform at their peak, finding ways to increase neurogenesis is one great way to do that.

Neurogenesis: Growing New Brain Cells

Growing your brain means new neurons (brain cells) must be developed, moved into position, and integrated into the existing brain circuitry (2). This process is called neurogenesis, and it depends on the presence of stem cells, which are template cells that have the ability to turn into mature cells down the line.

Stem cells have the ability to turn into different cell types depending on the chemical signals they receive during development. The signals come from elsewhere in the body via signaling pathways or directly from cells next door to them. Neuronal stem cells are no different – they depend on a complex variety of signals to regulate their development, and understanding them is key to boosting brain growth (3). 

Regulation is essential for neurogenesis. While neural stem cells are found throughout the brain, the process only takes place in two regions: the hippocampus, which is important for learning and memory, and the lateral ventricles, whose neurons contribute to the sense of smell (4).

Several nootropics can release natural chemicals that promote neurogenesis. This is one of the key ways they can help grow your brain.

Benefits Of Neurogenesis

Several lines of evidence have linked increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus to increased cognitive function and mood.

Being in an environment with positive stimuli is a natural way to boost neurogenesis (5). One study showed that mice whose hippocampal neurogenesis was increased by putting them in such an environment performed better than other mice in a memory test involving a maze (6).

Meanwhile, a genetically deficient strain of mice with a hippocampal neurogenesis rate 75% lower than regular mice performed significantly worse at memory and recognition tasks (7).

Neurogenesis could also affect mood regulation. This was first suggested by researchers who noticed that stress hormones, which are considered to be major contributors to anxiety and depression disorders, inhibited neurogenesis in the hippocampus (8).

This finding is supported by numerous studies that found that neurogenesis increased in depressed animals when they were given antidepressant treatments like fluoxetine (9).

Further evidence for the benefits of neurogenesis comes from observation of the elderly. Advanced age has been associated with reduced neurogenesis in the hippocampus (10), which is one reason why brain functions slow down as a person gets older. 

Nootropics which are neurodegenerative can help people to keep growing and restoring their brain as they get older, or can help people who are chronically stressed, like those who suffer from anxiety disorders, to keep healthy patterns of neurogenesis and reap all of its benefits.

Neurotrophins

One of the most important classes of molecules regulating neuronal development are neurotrophins. They are a class of growth factors – proteins secreted to control the development and specialization of growing cells in a certain tissue type.

The neurotrophins are known to control neuronal development in a complex manner. They control the proliferation of neural stem cells, their migration to different locations, and their development into mature cells. After maturity, many neurons’ ongoing survival is also regulated by neurotrophins (11).

One study showed that the application of NT-3, a neurotrophin, could increase the proliferation of neural stem cells in cell culture in vitro. Then, they showed the same effect in vivo using mouse models (12). 

This is the first step of neurogenesis. The proliferation of a healthy pool of stem cells ensures that there are sufficient template cells for the brain to work with.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 (FGF2), is another neurotrophin critical to the proliferation step. In studies using mice deficient for the gene which produces FGF2, neurogenesis was significantly decreased, a fact which resulted in impairment of their performance in memory-based tasks (13)

Elsewhere, researchers were able to induce the differentiation of hippocampal cells in culture by adding Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), NT-3, and NT-4 (14). This is the development step that turns non-functional stem cells into functional neurons. 

BDNF also plays a crucial role in brain cell survival. A lot of our bodies’ cells depend on constant chemical signals to survive. When they stop receiving the signal, they begin to die. BDNF plays this role in many areas of the brain. One study of cells in the dorsal root ganglion of the brain used RNA to chemically block the expression of the BDNF protein by 80%. As a result, cell death increased by 35% (15).

Increasing Neurotrophin Production

Several nootropics exist which boost the body’s native production of neurotrophins. Most effective compounds for boosting brain growth work by boosting either BDNF or Nerve Growth Factor (NGF). 

Lion’s Mane Mushrooms

Lion’s Mane mushrooms contain chemicals that boost the production of NGF. Researchers were able to isolate these novel compounds and characterize their mode of action, establishing the scientific basis to this natural medicine that has been used for centuries (16, 17).

Numerous other nootropics directly increase BDNF. These include L-Theanine (18), Bacopa monneri (19), and omega-3 fatty acids (20). Omega-3 fatty acids are a natural component of the diet found in fish, nuts, and seeds, but all three of these are available in nootropic extracts as well.

Ashwagandha

Ashwagandha is a plant native to the Indian subcontinent that has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries. It promotes healthy brain activity, largely by boosting BDNF (21). It is an ideal nootropic because of its broad spectrum of related effects – we’ll be talking more about it later.

Flavonoids

Neuronal growth is also stimulated by the colorful plant pigments called flavonoids. They are well known as strong antioxidants, but their beneficial action in the brain could not be explained by antioxidant activity – the concentrations of flavonoids in brain cells was too low (22). 

It was later discovered that they had neurodegenerative effects too. Flavonoids can stimulate a major signaling pathway known as CREB, which in turn releases different neurotrophins, including BDNF (23).

In fact, many cultures have been using plants containing flavonoids for years as traditional treatments for anxiety, depression, and a wealth of other conditions. The Chinese use a plant called Xiao Bu Xin-Tang for this purpose for centuries. Researchers have recently proven that the flavonoids extracted from this plant significantly increased hippocampal neurogenesis in rats when administered orally (24).

Blueberries are another natural source of flavonoids. In a study measuring the memory-forming ability of rats navigating a maze, researchers measured levels of CREB in the brains and observed that rats on the blueberry diet had more than twice the concentration of the molecule. This coincided with a significant improvement in working memory in this group, showing a clear link between CREB activity and improvements in brain activity (25). 

As well as blueberries and other food sources, extracts from the bark of the European maritime pine contain high concentrations of flavonoids, making it a good brain-boosting nootropic (26).

Providing Raw Materials For Neurogenesis

Regulation is one thing, but to construct new cells, the body needs a supply of raw molecular materials to build them out of. In particular, cells need phospholipids to construct their outer membranes.

Citicoline

Citicoline is an intermediate in the synthetic pathway that produces membrane phospholipids out of simpler building blocks. Taken orally as a supplement, it has a myriad of positive effects. Almost all of it is used by the body to produce phospholipids, especially a kind called phosphatidylcholine, which is used in central nervous system cells – like neurons (27).

Citicoline has been proven to protect neurons at all stages of the growth cycle. By enhancing the production of cell membranes, it stimulates neurogenesis and prolongs the lifespan of neurons. 

It promotes the release of helpful neurotransmitters like dopamine and epinephrine while inhibiting the release of potentially damaging ones like glutamate. Finally, it can stimulate energy production in the cellular mitochondria and decrease the incidence of harmful free radicals (28)

The sum of these effects can be called neuroprotective. Neuroprotective effects help preserve neurons, salvage their components when they break down and promote their swift usage to build new neurons (29). 

A neuron saved is the same as a neuron created. Neuroprotective agents work additively with neurodegenerative ones, as they consolidate each other’s effects by operating to boost and maintain brain growth at different stages of the neurodegenerative cycle.

Phosphatidylserine 

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is another important phospholipid for your brain cells. It is not just a building block – there is a growing body of research suggesting that phospholipids facilitate intracellular reactions, including the opening and closing of ion channels which constitute intercellular communications (30).

In other words, healthy levels of phosphatidylserine can actively help your neurons to communicate properly.

PS has an important neuroprotective signaling function. When neurons are damaged, it migrates to the outer membrane and is recognized by receptors which allow the cell to be digested and its parts recycled quickly (31). Without this process, the dead cell can stay in place, clogging up space while its components go unused.

These dead neurons can also become toxic to nearby cells by causing local inflammation. PS signaling triggers the release of anti-inflammatory compounds which treat these local hotspots at the same time as they signal for the cell to be recycled (32)

Given these facts, you might expect PS to be valuable as a nootropic. That is exactly right. Taken orally, PS supplements are readily bioavailable and cross the blood-brain barrier (33). Once there, they improve memory recall, cognition, and mood (34, 35).

These effects were more pronounced in the elderly and those with neurodegenerative diseases – people whose neurons are more vulnerable. A large-scale study of 492 elderly patients with symptoms of memory loss and cognitive impairment considered the effects of PS supplementation across a range of standard tests of cognition and recall. The PS group experienced a 13% increase in scores across the range of tests compared to the placebo group (36).

Maintaining Neuroplasticity

So far, we have discussed brain growth in the sense of creating new neurons that become integrated into existing pathways. We’ve also seen that the efficacy of these pathways in terms of speed and accuracy of communication between the pathway’s individual cells can be increased or decreased.

The brain also possesses the ability to reroute pathways or grow new ones entirely. This property is called neuroplasticity. A child’s brain is highly neuroplastic, forming new pathways constantly as they learn new things. The adult brain is less so but retains the ability to form new pathways in response to damage or learning new tasks (37).

Enhancing the neuroplasticity of your brain can lead to improvements in cognition and memory recall, much like with neurogenesis (38). Maintaining neuroplasticity is important for forming long-term memories (39).

Chronic stress can reduce neuroplasticity and cause the neurons in the hippocampus to start degenerating – the opposite of neurogenesis. This reduces your cognitive functions and can contribute to mental disorders like major depression (40)

Avoiding stress can be difficult in the modern world, but several nootropics can improve neuroplasticity in the adult brain, supporting brain growth and helping to nullify the detrimental effects of stress.

Citicoline is one. Because it facilitates the growth and recycling of neuronal materials, it can speed up the rerouting of neuronal pathways and stimulate their growth (41).

Ashwagandha is another. An extract from its roots was administered in a clinical trial to rats who were placed under conditions that promoted neurodegeneration. It proved to be effective in blocking the damage caused by stress hormones and oxidative damage (42).

Its effectiveness is also evident in human trials. A study of 64 adults who suffered from chronic stress found that after 60 days of supplementation with ashwagandha root extract, the patients had significant reductions in their serum cortisol levels and scored better on all stress-assessment scales used in the study (43).

Another study on healthy volunteers showed the extract led to a significant improvement in memory and cognitive functions compared to a control group (44).

The Correct Dosage

A common refrain for toxicologists is “the dose makes the poison”; how much of something you take is important for how it will work in your body. Many compounds with neurodegenerative properties only work at certain concentrations.

Researchers investigating the neurodegenerative properties of curcumin, which occurs naturally in curry spices, found that low concentrations caused neural progenitor cells to proliferate. When the concentration became too high, it caused cells to die (45).

Take Ashwagandha supplements. In safety tests, researchers found that the extract of this plant was safe to take with minimal side effects, even at high doses. But, at these high doses, mild symptoms like nausea and stomach pain did occur in some subjects (46).

With extracts in the form of supplements, you always know the exact dosage. This allows you greater control compared to consuming these plants in other ways. 

That being said, supplements should always complement a healthy lifestyle. Aerobic exercise, healthy sleep patterns, and a good diet will boost your brain growth as much as any supplement can – it’s when you put the two together that you can achieve the greatest benefits.

Summary

‘Brain growth’ is a tough concept to pin down. It can refer to neurogenesis itself – the creation of new neurons and their integration into the existing circuitry. It also encompasses changes in how efficiently the neurons in these pathways function and even how well neurons can reorganize themselves into new pathways (neuroplasticity).

This system is regulated at various different stages within the process. So, nootropics have a lot of targets at which to act. The best nootropics for brain growth are broad-spectrum – they contain multiple compounds which act in different ways, leading to greater effects.

Ashwagandha, citicoline, and maritime pine bark extract are a few of the nootropic supplements that boost brain growth. Lifestyle changes can also have an impact, so it’s a good idea to start with achieving a healthy diet and regular exercise.

When you combine a healthy lifestyle with nootropic supplements, you’ll find yourself in the best position to achieve long-lasting gains in brain growth throughout your lifetime.

The post How To Grow New Brain Cells Using Nootropics appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

Since the synthesis of the first nootropic in 1964, many claims have been made as to just what nootropics can achieve. Unfortunately,4 there is some false and deceptive information out there. Understanding all the misconceptions, truths, and myths surrounding nootropics will help you more effectively use nootropics to better your overall cognitive performance. 

Myths Around Nootropics

With so many positive claims being made about nootropics, it’s easy to understand how information could be misconstrued. As such, there are quite a few myths around the effects of nootropics that need to be better understood. 

Myth: Nootropics Can Make You Smarter

With all the research supporting the effect of nootropics on cognitive function, many people seem to think that nootropics can, therefore, improve intelligence. However, there is a difference between cognitive functioning and IQ and there seems to be no evidence that nootropics have a positive effect on IQ. 

Myth: Nootropics Are A Replacement For A Healthy Lifestyle 

With the benefits possible from various nootropics, it may come as no surprise that some people think that the positive effects of nootropics extend to cover all lifestyle choices. While nootropics can potentially improve mood, focus, alertness, creativity, memory, and performance, they are not a cure-all. The negative effects of bad sleep and food habits and a lack of exercise cannot be simply erased by taking a nootropic. 

This myth likely started as patients saw an increase in energy after a sleepless night from taking a nootropic like modafinil, or increased mental clarity from taking bacopa monnieri even after a lethargic day. However, continuous unhealthy behaviors will not be remedied simply by nootropic use. 

While nootropics may be able to provide a cognitive boost to fight a lack of healthy choices every once in a while, it is not sustainable and you should see the most effective cognitive benefits alongside positive lifestyle choices like healthy nutrition, exercise, and sleep levels. 

Myth: Nootropics Don’t Actually Work 

A typical expectation for patients taking nootropics may be that they think the nootropic will provide an immediate result. This is perhaps not surprising when thinking about therapies like prescription painkillers, which provide immediate results and might be a prime example of how most people think all medications work. 

While certain nootropics like caffeine may provide instant results for some, every person reacts differently to nootropics and you shouldn’t expect immediate results from every nootropic you try. Some people may find they have to take a nootropic for a period of time before seeing results, or that one nootropic works better for them than another. Patience and experimentation are key when it comes to nootropics and finding the perfect one or combination to create the cognitive result that you’re after. 

So if a nootropic doesn’t immediately provide the results you are after, it doesn’t necessarily mean that nootropics don’t work. Keep persevering with nootropic experimentation, as you may find that you need to take that specific nootropic for a lengthier period of time to see results, or you may need to try a different nootropic. 

Myth: Nootropics Are Alternative Treatments That Aren’t Proven 

As with any form of treatment outside of traditional prescriptions, nootropics are thought of by some as “hippy” medicine, with little to no scientific backing. A lot of this skepticism may also come down to the fact that a lot of nootropics like ashwagandha or bacopa monnieri are naturally occurring plants. Modern medicine tends to focus on lab-created treatments, but many of these naturally occurring nootropics have been used successfully in traditional medicines (e.g. Chinese) that have been around for centuries.

There is also substantial evidence proving the efficacy of many nootropics. For example, research tells us that caffeine is a nootropic that effectively increases alertness and energy levels by acting as an antagonist, or blocking, adenosine receptors. Adenosine plays a crucial role in inducing sleep and tiredness, so by blocking their receptors caffeine is able to induce a more active and alert cognitive state (1). 

Other naturally occurring nootropics like ashwagandha have also been extensively researched. One possible cognitive enhancement from using ashwagandha is improved mental health, and there is research to back this claim. One study testing the effect of ashwagandha on the rat brain demonstrated that it acted as a significant agonist (or activator) of GABA𝗉1 receptors and was able to activate GABBA channels (2). This is significant as many neurological disorders, such as anxiety, are linked to a disturbance in GABAergic signaling. One clinical study demonstrated that ashwagandha root extract was able to significantly reduce stress and cortisol (an important stress hormone) levels in patients given the nootropic twice a day for 60 days (3). 

It is important to do your research around nootropics, as all claims should be backed up by scientific studies and ideally, clinical trials on patients. 

While there is substantial research surrounding nootropics, many doctors aren’t quick to prescribe them, and perhaps may not even recognize the word nootropics. This may contribute to nootropics being known by some as an alternative, “hippy” treatment. But ironically, many nootropics are actually prescribed by doctors, even if they don’t refer to them as such. 

Prescription nootropics include modafinil (brand name Provigil), Adderall, and Ritalin (methylphenidate). Modafinil is prescribed to treat narcolepsy and has been shown to reduce tiredness (4) and increase cognitive performance (5). The nootropic Adderall is typically prescribed to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and has been shown to improve memory and alertness (6). Ritalin, another prescription nootropic, is also used to treat ADHD patients and is known to improve memory and cognitive processing (7). 

Nootropic Truths

There are a lot of claims made about nootropics and many can be backed up with evidence from scientific studies. Let’s take a look at the truth behind nootropics as they relate to cognitive function. 

Nootropics Can Improve Memory

There are many nootropics that offer possible improvements to memory, and it seems that the research supports the claims of a lot of them. 

Bacopa monnieri is one such nootropic providing a boost to memory. Bacopa monnieri is a wetland herb that is often associated with Ayurveda, traditional medicine that developed in India thousands of years ago. One study tested the memory-enhancing abilities of bacopa monnieri on cognitively healthy humans. Different dosages were given to patients over 12 weeks, after which memory was tested. The results showed that bacopa monnieri improved memory free recall, with patients showing improvement in 9 out of the 17 memory tests. One of the ways that bacopa monnieri may improve memory is through bacosides (8). Bacosides are an active chemical compound found in bacopa monnieri that has been shown to improve the recollection of new memories (anterograde memory) and also possibly reduce anterograde amnesia (9). 

Ginkgo biloba is another nootropic that has been shown to have a positive effect on memory function. Ginkgo biloba is an extract from the leaves of the tree with the same name and comes in a supplement form. One study tested the effect of ginkgo biloba in 188 healthy patients. After 240mg of ginkgo biloba extract once a day for 6 months, the study participants were then given demanding recall tests. The study then showed that ginkgo biloba significantly improved the recall ability of patients when compared to the placebo group. These recall tests required demanding “self-initiated retrieval of learned material”, the ability of which is thought to be sensitive to aging. This research shows that ginkgo biloba may be able to positively improve memory function, even in aging (10). 

But it’s not just naturally occurring nootropics than can have an effect on memory. Noopept is a synthetic nootropic that is reported to act very quickly and has been found to positively influence memory and memory recall (11). Noopept is an anti-inflammatory and an antioxidant and has been shown in one study to increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in the hippocampus of the rats’ brains. The hippocampus is an area of the brain associated with memory and BDNF can increase brain cell growth, and the study concluded that the combination of the two may lead to improved memory consolidation and retrieval. In fact, Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment have been associated with a lack of neurotrophic factor in the hippocampus and as such, Noopept may be able to play a role in slowing Alzheimer’s development (12). 

Nootropics Can Reduce Drowsiness 

A variety of nootropics have been shown through research to fight drowsiness and fatigue by increasing alertness, focus, and energy levels. 

One obvious medication that might come to mind when you think of increased alertness is Adderall. Adderall is an amphetamine prescription medication that works as a nootropic because it increases cognitive alertness and makes you feel more awake. Adderall works by increasing catecholamine levels in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which activates norepinephrine and dopamine receptors. These receptors can increase blood flow and breathing/heart rates. They are located in the prefrontal cortex which means they fire in an area of the brain associated with attention and focus. The amphetamines present in Adderall have also been shown to increase attention and focus, however amphetamines including Adderall can have serious side effects and have been widely abused (13). 

One less regulated nootropic that can reduce drowsiness is caffeine. Caffeine, most commonly found in coffee, is consumed by over 80% of adults in the United States and it can have a significant effect on energy levels. Low to moderate doses of caffeine have been shown to increase attention and alertness levels, as well as increasing the time it takes you to become tired while physically exerting energy (14). As previously stated, caffeine may be able to induce this energy increase by blocking the adenosine receptors that can induce sleep and tiredness (1). 

Mucuna pruriens is a naturally occurring nootropic that may also be able to increase alertness and energy levels to fight drowsiness. Mucuna pruriens is a bean native to African and Asia that is possibly best known as an L-dopa source (15). L-dopa is an amino acid that may be able to modulate energy levels through its ability to increase dopamine. Research tells us that increased dopamine levels can lead to increased energy levels and expenditure (16). 

Nootropics Can Improve Mood And Stress Levels 

Nootropics have long been touted for their ability to improve overall mood. Stress and low mood can drastically affect cognitive function and there are many nootropics with research behind them that may be able to positively impact mood and stress.

One nootropic claiming to help manage stress is rhodiola rosea. Rhodiola rosea is a supplement from the root of the rhodiola rosea plant, a flowering mountainous herb. One scientific trial investigated the effects of rhodiola rosea extract in patients with stress symptoms. 101 patients were given a 200mg dose of the extract daily for 4 weeks and were then questioned as to their stress levels. The results showed that rhodiola rosea extract managed to improve stress symptoms across all tests and that these improvements started as early as 3 days into the rhodiola rosea treatment. Importantly, the extract was also shown to be safe and showed only mild side effects (17). 

Curcumin is another nootropic that may be able to improve mood. An herbal extract, curcumin is an active ingredient of turmeric that has been shown to improve the symptoms of mood disorders. One study showed that after 4 weeks of treatment, curcumin was able to significantly improve mood by increasing calm and contentedness levels in the study participants who were all aged above 60 years old (18). 

Depression is a serious mood disorder that can negatively impact cognitive function. St John’s wort is one nootropic that has been shown to improve some symptoms of depression. St John’s wort is a flowering plant that has long been used for medicinal purposes and is taken as an extract derived from the plant’s flowers. One review of scientific literature found that St John’s wort acted on depression at a higher rate than the control, and was able to improve mild and moderate depression symptoms at levels not too different from traditional antidepressant medication (19). One clinical study also found that St John’s wort (at 500 mg per day, 3 times a day for 6 weeks) was able to reduce depression scores in adult patients with acute major depression by 56.6%. While patients taking the antidepressant paroxetine only saw a 44.8% reduction in their depression scores (20). One reason for the mood-boosting effects of St John’s wort might be its bioactive components. These active compounds are thought to activate serotonin receptors in the frontal cortex, an area of the brain involved in depression. Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter involved in improving mood (21).  

Nootropics Can Increase Creativity

Improved cognitive functioning can include increased creativity and many nootropics have been thought to do just that. When we say creativity we mean the cognitive ability to think of new ideas.

L-theanine is an amino acid that has been shown to act as a nootropic and improve creativity. L-theanine occurs naturally in green and black tea and can also be taken as a supplement. L-theanine is thought to increase creativity by modulating certain brain functions, more specifically by increasing the activity of alpha frequency band waves. This increase may be able to provide a relaxing feeling that does not include drowsiness, which is a great cognitive state for increasing creativity levels (22). 

Tyrosine is another amino acid that is thought to have a nootropic effect on cognitive health and creativity levels. Tyrosine can be found in certain cheeses and high-protein foods but is often just taken as an extract supplement. One study looked into the effect of tyrosine on creative tasks. The study showed that tyrosine did have an impact on “deep-thinking” tasks and conclude that it may be able to facilitate creativity. Tyrosine is a precursor to many chemicals including dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is thought to play an important role in creativity and cognitive control (23). 

Summary

There are many preconceptions people hold about nootropics that affect the myths and truths about nootropics that are out there. Most myths come down to not understanding the research supporting the effects of nootropics, especially the idea that nootropics don’t work and are only used by people interested in unproven “alternative” medicine. On the other hand, myths like nootropics can make you smart or that nootropics can undo unhealthy lifestyle choices seem to occur from individuals taking a broad look at nootropic benefits and not understanding the nuances of how they work. Further exposure to research proves that all of these myths are in fact, myths. 

But while there is some misinformation out there about how nootropics work, there are some benefits that people believe about nootropics that are actually true. Nootropics can improve memory, drowsiness, mood, and creativity levels, but again it’s important to understand nootropic research and that different nootropics can induce very different effects. 

The post Nootropics: Misconceptions, Truths, and Myths appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

But can nootropics actually improve your success in life? 

Nootropics And Life Success 

Nootropics are any oral therapy that can have a positive effect on cognitive function. Also sometimes referred to as smart-drugs, there is a range of cognitive improvements that can be gained through proper usage of nootropics. 

Just some of the benefits possible from nootropic supplements include improvements to memory, mood, creativity, motivation, and energy. It is therefore easy to see just how nootropics might be able to improve your life, and possibly your success. 

But it is important to keep in mind that nootropics aren’t a cure-all, they can’t magically give successful qualities to someone, but they can provide a boost that might help your brain function at an optimal level. 

Nootropics May Increase Your Motivation

One of the ways that nootropics might be able to improve your success in life is by increasing your motivation. With increased motivation comes the potential for an increase in work output, which is certainly one way to increase your odds of success in whatever you do. Sometimes you might find it hard to build up the motivation to start a project, and research tells us that there is a range of nootropics that might be able to help give you the motivational boost you need to be successful. 

One of the key components of motivation is dopamine. Dopamine is involved in reward responses that are key to initiating feelings of positive motivation. When dopamine is released in our brain, it can initiate positive feelings that promote reward-seeking and therefore increase motivation. In their tonic, or baseline state, dopamine neurons fire at a steady level while maintaining normal function. However, when their phasic mode is activated dopamine neurons can fire at a much higher rate, causing increases in dopamine concentration. This phasic response can be triggered by many reward cues where dopamine plays an important role in reinforcing learning through motivation (1). 

L-Tyrosine

With dopamine playing such a crucial role in initiating feelings of motivation, it may therefore not come as a surprise that some of the nootropics involved in increasing motivation involved the modulation of dopamine. 

L-tyrosine is one nootropic associated with an increase in dopamine. Tyrosine (or L-Tyrosine) acts as a precursor of dopamine, with tetrahydrobiopterin converting tyrosine into DOPA which can then be converted into dopamine (2). 

One study showed that when honeybees were fed tyrosine, the levels of dopamine in their brains were significantly higher than the bees who were fed a control substance. This study suggests that oral tyrosine supplementation may increase brain levels of dopamine (3). 

Modafinil

Modafinil is another nootropic that may be able to increase motivation in patients. Modafinil, otherwise known by the brand name Provigil is a stimulant-like drug that is typically used for the treatment of sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, as well as shift work sleep disorder, but is also thought to have a significant effect on cognitive function.  

Modafinil is thought to have an effect on task-related motivation through such mechanisms as glutamate, noradrenaline, and dopamine action. Modafinil is thought to have low addictive properties and the research suggests that it is able to increase motivation (4). One study looked into the effect of modafinil on rat models and the results showed that rats given modafinil showed increased motivation in tasks. The researchers concluded that modafinil seems to increase motivation, and that this might also contribute to the enhanced cognitive function seen with modafinil use (5). 

Improves Memory

Memory is key to optimal cognitive functioning and can also play a crucial role in life.

Improved memory can lead to improved success in life, with study, work, and hobbies all potentially benefiting from an improved memory.

There are many nootropics that seem to be able to improve memory function. 

Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo biloba is one such nootropic. An extract from the leaf of the gingko biloba tree, it comes in a supplement form. Research tells us that ginkgo biloba may be able to significantly improve memory, improving your cognitive abilities, and possibly add to your success in life. 

One study demonstrated that 240mg of Ginkgo biloba extract a day for 6 months was able to significantly improve the free recall ability of patients. The participants in this study were given demanding tests that required them to self-initiate the retrieval of information that they had previously learned (6). 

Another study looking into the effect of ginkgo biloba extract on cognitive impairment in healthy elderly patients found that the extract was able to prove a protective effect against the decline of memory function. Participants took ginkgo biloba extract over 42 months, but initial results actually showed the extract had no effect of memory function. However, after removing participants from the study who didn’t take the correct dose of ginkgo biloba, the results determined that the extract did have a significant effect on memory (7). 

Bacopa Monnieri

Bacopa monnieri is another nootropic that has demonstrated potential as a memory booster. Bacopa monnieri is an Ayurvedic herb that can be found as an extract. Research seems to confirm the anecdotal evidence of bacopa monnieri’s memory-enhancing abilities. One study found that bacopa monnieri was able to improve memory recall in 9 out of 17 memory tests given to patients (8). One possible mechanism for this memory improvement is bacosides. Bacosides are active chemicals found in the bacopa monnieri plant, and they have been shown to improve the recollection of new memories (9). 

Noopept

There are also synthetic nootropics that may be able to improve memory. Noopept is one of these. An anti-inflammatory and antioxidant, Noopept has been shown to immediately act on memory and memory recall. 

One study investigated the effect of Noopept on BDNF (a neurotrophic factor) in the hippocampus of rat models. The hippocampus is an area of the brain associated with memory and BDNF, or brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which is an important component of cell growth. The study found that chronic use of Noopept caused an increase in BDNF expression in the hippocampus of rats. This means that Noopept may be able to improve memory consolidation and retrieval. Further confirming Noopept’s potential as a memory booster is the fact that memory degenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s have been linked to a lack of the neurotrophic factors upregulated through Noopept (10). 

Improves Mood

Your mood can play a crucial role in the events and outcomes of your life. High-stress levels and mood disorders can have devastating effects on your everyday functioning. A reduction in stress levels, or in the symptoms of mood disorders like depression or anxiety, would potentially have a positive effect on success and quality of life. 

Rhodiola Rosea

Stress can negatively affect a broad range of functions, and a reduction in stress levels can result in improved performance and therefore possibly an increase in success. Rhodiola rosea is one nootropic that has been shown to have stress-reducing properties. Rhodiola rosea is a flowering plant that comes from cool mountainous areas and can be taken in the form of an extract taken from the root of the plant. 

One trial looked into the effects of rhodiola rosea on stress symptoms, giving a daily 200mg dose of the extract to participants over 4 weeks. After being questioned as to their stress levels, the results of the study showed that rhodiola rosea was able to improve all the stress symptoms tested. Impressively, these reductions in stress were shown to occur as early as 3 days into treatment with the extract (11). 

Curcumin 

Curcumin is another herbal nootropic that has been shown to improve mood and possibly create a healthier cognitive environment that may allow you to have greater success in life. 

Curcumin is found in turmeric and can be taken in the form of an extract. One study used this curcumin extract to investigate its effects on overall cognitive function and mood disorders. The study was a randomized, double-blind placebo-control trial that measured cognitive function and mood in participants aged 60 to 85 years old. The results of the study showed that mood disorder symptoms like general fatigue and stress levels were significantly improved after 4 weeks of treatment (12). 

St John’s Wort

Serious mood disorders like depression can have a dramatic impact on the everyday functions of an individual, possibly lowering productivity levels or affecting relationships with others. Some people do find that they have less success in life while in a depressive state. 

One nootropic that has shown potential in improving some of the symptoms of depression is St John’s wort, a flowering plant that can be taken as an extract. One clinical study looked into the effect of St John’s wort on adult patients with acute major depression, giving them 500mg of St John’s wort three times per day for six weeks in total. After the six weeks of treatment, the results showed that all participants taking St John’s wort saw a reduction in depression scores by 56.6%. This is all the more impressive when seeing the results of the other group in the study who were instead given the antidepressant paroxetine. The paroxetine group also saw a reduction in depression scores, but only by 44.8% (13). 

The potential mood-boosting effects of St John’s wort might be thanks to its bioactive components, which are thought to upregulate serotonin receptors in the frontal cortex, an area of the brain involved in depression, possibly leading to an increase in the mood-boosting neurotransmitter serotonin (14). 

Creativity Boost 

Often success comes from a new idea or creative approach and thinking about problems differently can be one of the best ways to better the outcome. Increasing creativity is another cognitive improvement that may be able to better your success in life.

Improving creativity means improving your cognitive ability to think of new ideas, and there is a range of nootropics out there that may be able to do just that. 

L-Theanine

L-theanine is one such nootropic that offers a lot of potential as a creativity-booster. L-theanine can be taken as an extract supplement and it can be found in green and black tea. 

Research tells us that L-theanine may be able to increase the activity of alpha frequency band waves and modulate brain function. One study looked into the effect of L-theanine on cognitive function and found that 50mg of the nootropic supplement significantly increased alpha activity in healthy, young participants. This increase in alpha frequency activity indicates that L-theanine may be able to induce a cognitive effect that is highly conducive to creative thinking, namely relaxing the mind without inducing a feeling of drowsiness (15). 

L-Tyrosine

L-tyrosine is a prime example of a nootropic that may have multiple beneficial properties to help you succeed in life. As well as possibly creating a motivating effect, L-tyrosine may also be able to boost creativity. Motivation and creativity are two cognitive functions that work well together, which may make L-tyrosine especially effective as a cognitive-boosting nootropic (16). 

Mental blocks are a common and frustrating occurrence and some people turn to food to try and overcome a lack of inspiration. L-tyrosine can be found naturally in cheeses and high-protein foods. Because of this and the fact that dopamine, formed from L-tyrosine, is thought to be a driver of creative thinking, researchers in one study investigated the effects of L-tyrosine on creative cognition. They found the L-tyrosine supplements were able to promote a type of creative thinking called convergent thinking in participants (16). 

Improves Energy And Focus

Productivity is extremely important to success. Improved focus and increased energy levels can play an important role in helping you to achieve your goals.

There are many nootropics which have shown an ability to both boost energy and help you to focus. 

Caffeine

You might not think of caffeine as a nootropic, but with its cognitive boosting abilities it certainly is. Caffeine may be the most regularly consumed nootropic, with over 80% of adults in the US drinking it and the research tells us they might be right to do so. 

One study found that low and moderate doses of caffeine resulted in improvements to alertness and attention and caffeine also managed to reduce the time it takes to feel exhausted during physical performance. The study concluded that caffeine may be an effective way to increase energy levels and remain focused (17). 

One way that caffeine may be able to affect alertness and energy levels is through adenosine receptors. Adenosine is a chemical that is thought to play a crucial role in inducing feelings of tiredness. Research tells us that caffeine may be able to block the receptors of adenosine, possibly reducing tiredness and helping to create a focused and energized cognitive state (18). 

Adderall

Adderall is a prescription medication nootropic that can have a significant effect on cognitive function. Adderall is typically used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy. Adderall will typically induce feelings of alertness and increase energy levels in anyone who takes it. 

Research tells us that Adderall might induce these cognitive effects by activating certain receptors. Adderall has been shown to increase catecholamine levels in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, which then activates dopamine and norepinephrine receptors. Activation of these receptors can induce symptoms associated with increased energy levels and they are also found in the prefrontal cortex, which is an area of the brain associated with focus and attention (19). Adderall is an addictive substance, so do not use it unless it is prescribed to you by a medical professional. 

Mucuna Pruriens

Mucuna pruriens is a bean native to Africa and Asia that also has been shown to have significant effects on energy levels and alertness. Mucuna pruriens can be taken as a supplement and is a well-known nootropic. 

Research tells us that Mucuna pruriens is also a source of L-dopa. L-dopa is an amino acid capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier resulting in an increase of dopamine concentrations. As well as having an effect on motivation, dopamine has also been shown to increase energy levels. Research tells us that dopamine promotes energy expenditure. It is thought that dopamine might signal that energy is available for use and thus increase energy levels. (20, 21)

Summary 

Success in life can be hard to measure, but there are certain positive cognitive functions that might be able to increase your productivity and improve your interactions with others, which can surely be a positive step on the road to success. 

Nootropics come in a variety of forms, but they all have some effect on cognitive function and many of them offer cognitive benefits that may be able to improve aspects of your life and lead to more successful outcomes. While they might not be a cure-all and immediately create success in your life, they might just be able to provide you with the cognitive boost that you need to succeed. 

Improvements to memory, mood, creativity, motivation, energy, and focus are all key aspects of successful cognitive functioning and there are a variety of nootropics that have been shown to induce these results.

The post How Nootropics Can Increase Your Success In Life appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

Caffeine Usage Across The World

Due to its popularity, it is estimated to be the most commonly consumed psychoactive drug in the world today (1). Like most of the world, Americans are heavy caffeine users. A review estimated that 85% of the US population consumed at least one caffeinated beverage per day (2). The results are based on data from a survey of 37,602 randomly selected consumers. The most popular drink is coffee, followed by carbonated soft drinks and tea. Those three beverages together account for 96% of all caffeine use in the United States.

A smaller proportion of the population consumes caffeine from other sources, including high-caffeine energy drinks and in capsule form, often combined with other compounds. 

Why Do People Use Caffeine?

Due to the different concentrations of caffeine across beverages, as well as the presence of other neuroactive compounds specific to each drink, caffeine users experience slightly different effects depending on their mode of intake.

Common to most caffeine users are increased feelings of alertness and improvement in mood. Because of these effects, caffeine is considered to be a nootropic in moderate doses. The dosage is key – at higher doses, the nootropic effects are replaced by potentially unpleasant side effects such as jitteriness, an increased heart rate, and anxiety.

Consumed in appropriate doses (100-400 mg), caffeine can be a powerful and healthy way to increase your cognitive performance and overall mood without any corresponding negative consequences. 

So how does caffeine work to improve mood, memory, and focus?

Improving Focus

Caffeine Is A Central Nervous System Stimulant

The primary acute effects of caffeine occur through its antagonism of adenosine receptors in the central nervous system (CNS). Antagonists are chemicals that specifically bind to a certain receptor type without activating the corresponding cascade of biochemical signals which produce the intended result. 

Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that normally functions to induce sleepiness and drowsiness as part of the natural sleep cycle. Its concentration modulates throughout the day in various brain regions associated with sleep-wake cycle regulation, primarily the basal forebrain and the cortex. Its concentration is lowest immediately after waking and highest immediately before sleep (3).

Although its concentration is not affected by caffeine, its ability to bind to its receptors is decreased due to the blocking effect of caffeine. Caffeine antagonizes two of the four subtypes of adenosine receptors (A1 and A2a), markedly decreasing the neurotransmitter’s effect on the CNS (4, 5). 

Caffeine’s effect on CNS stimulation was assessed in one study by measuring the brain activity of mice. Caffeine increased locomotor activity by up to four times compared to mice given a saline control (6).

In another study, researchers found that caffeine increased wakefulness in mice possessing a functional A2a receptor gene, but not in those mice who had mutations resulting in a non-functional copy of the receptor (7). A third study showed that caffeine increased brain activity in mice by up to 40% (8).

CNS Stimulation Improves Brain Function

As a CNS stimulant, caffeine acts to increase alertness, focus and energy levels. Caffeine increases levels of serotonin – the neurotransmitter associated with mood – while increasing energy levels by releasing and adrenaline and acetylcholine (9).

Caffeine also increases the release of dopamine (10). Although this is popularly thought of as the ‘chemical of pleasure’, it is actually considered to play a more prominent role in motivating one’s motivation towards or away from some kind of goal or stimulation – meaning it can increase your focus and attention towards achieving various goals (11).

In a study conducted for the military, 50 males between the ages of 18 and 32 were randomly given treatments consisting of various amounts of caffeine or a placebo after a period of sleep deprivation. 

They were then subjected to a variety of standardized testing procedures measuring memory recall, reaction times, logical reasoning, and the ability to sustain attention on a task. Those subjects given caffeine produced significantly better results in these measures of brain function (12).

Improving Memory

Caffeine Helps To Consolidate Memories

Until recently, caffeine was considered not to aid in memory formation. Studies that tested the effect of caffeine on memory gave the treatment before the studying part of the trial, and while the familiar increases in alertness were observed, memory consolidation appeared to be unaffected.

Later on, researchers thought to test whether caffeine given after the study session had any effect on subjects’ ability to recall the material after the fact.

In a randomized, double-blind study, 160 subjects were either given a 200mg dose of caffeine or a placebo following the memorization of picture-based patterns. The caffeine group performed significantly better at the recall task, especially in their ability to discriminate between images that were similar, but not identical to those shown in the study session (13).

Caffeine Improves Performance During Natural Low-Points

Further study showed that this effect can be used to overcome the time-based discrepancies in memory recall that occur naturally throughout the day. It is well-established that older adults experience a physiological low point in the afternoon and evening, resulting in a decline in recall ability.

For younger adults, this point occurs in the morning. This affects the ability of students to study and take exams in the morning. In a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, it was shown that caffeine helped subjects overcome these low points. Older adults given caffeine showed no decline in recall ability in the afternoon, while younger adults showed a great improvement in the morning (14).

Researchers have also found examples of this effect in nature, in a study of honey bees’ ability to remember the scents of certain nectar-containing flowers. They found that when plants naturally contain caffeine, bees are three times more likely to consolidate the memory of that flower’s odor (15).

The study also proposed a mechanism of action. Caffeine’s antagonism of adenosine receptors could have a potentiating effect, meaning that it amplifies the ability of neurons to form new connections. Since memory formation involves the formation of new neural pathways, this could go some way to explaining the memory-enhancing effects of caffeine. 

Further research is needed to confirm exactly how caffeine aids in memory formation. Still, it appears that consuming caffeine after studying improves the ability to consolidate those memories on a long-term basis, a useful effect for academic study and work-related contexts.

Improving Mood

Caffeine Increases Production Of Mood-Enhancing Hormones

Coffee has a popular reputation as a mood enhancer. People say things like “I’m much nicer after my morning cup of coffee”, describing increased happiness, calmness, and satisfaction while under the influence of the drug.

It’s not hard to understand why. As already described, caffeine’s activity on the CNS increases the concentration of serotonin and dopamine in the brain (16). Both of these neurotransmitters are heavily involved in the brain’s native reward pathways.

These pathways are activated by certain stimuli including eating food, exercising, and during sexual activity – behaviors that contribute to an organism’s likelihood of survival. They produce a distinct feeling of pleasure and satisfaction that the organism, whether it is a mouse or a human, wants to recreate. The reward pathways evolved to increase the likelihood of repeating the behavior in question.

Caffeine also increases the production of epinephrine, also known as adrenaline. This is normally released during states of arousal and helps us to feel active and excited – it is one of the primary excitatory hormones of the CNS.

By increasing the production of these various hormones and neurotransmitters, caffeine helps to bring about an active and excited state of mind.

Caffeine Improves The Mood Of Study Participants

Testing the effect of caffeine on mood is an inherently subjective exercise, given that the data collected must be self-reported by the study participants in the form of survey answers. Nonetheless, these uncertainties can be overcome by double-blind, randomized testing combined with statistical techniques. 

In one study, the group given a moderate dose of caffeine reported greater feelings of relaxation, happiness, and satisfaction when compared to a group who were given a placebo (17). These mood-enhancing effects were observed irrespective of the subjects’ regular level of caffeine usage, suggesting these effects are not part of the tolerance built up by regular caffeine users.

Another study agreed with the finding that caffeine increased self-reported mood levels, but found that the effects were stronger when subjects had not consumed caffeine in the past 24 hours (18).

A third paper combined a variety of data from survey responses to produce four mood categories: sedation, tense arousal, energetic arousal, and hedonic tone. Energetic arousal was defined as an increase in energy and alertness without a corresponding increase in anxiety or stress, while hedonic tone was a measure of the positivity or negativity shown by subjects to the same stimuli depending on their state of mind.

In the double-blind trial, participants given caffeine scored higher in energetic arousal and hedonic tone regardless of the amount of caffeine consumed. Sedation increased at low levels of caffeine intake, while tense arousal increased at higher levels of consumption (19).

Negative Effects of Caffeine

Too Much Caffeine Can Have The Opposite Effect

Although moderate doses of caffeine can boost your mood, memory, and focus, too much can have the opposite effect as intended. The same action at the adenosine receptor that is responsible for the primary effects of caffeine also triggers anxiolytic (anxiety generating) pathways which result in the perception of stress and nervousness (20). 

In a behavioral study of mice, caffeine and another antagonist specific to the A1 receptor increased anxious behaviors, whereas a third antagonist specific to the A2a receptor did not (21).

Since the primary action of caffeine is at the A2a receptor (6), doses of caffeine that are too high increase the effects of the anxiolytic A1 receptor, increasing the anxiety-provoking component of its effect.

As a CNS stimulant that releases epinephrine, caffeine also increases blood pressure and heart rate. Too much caffeine results in an uncomfortable increase in these parameters, which explains the ‘jitters’ phenomenon commonly described by those who have had too much caffeine.

Is Caffeine Helpful Or Harmful?

As we have seen, caffeine has the potential to induce useful, nootropic effects, while also leading to negative and potentially harmful side effects at higher doses. So, it is important to consume the right dosage of caffeine to ensure it functions as an enhancer in your body.

Researchers formulating drugs for production use a concept called the therapeutic window. By manipulating various factors, they can produce a formulation that releases the drug more quickly or slowly into the bloodstream, therefore keeping a patient’s blood concentration of a compound between the minimum effective level and the level at which side effects are experienced for the maximum amount of time.

When caffeine is consumed in beverages, it enters the bloodstream quickly. When consuming coffee and cola, the peak in serum concentration was around 45 minutes after consumption, while it was closer to 70 minutes when caffeine was consumed in capsule form. After about 12 hours, a moderate dose of caffeine will have been fully excreted (22).

Caffeine’s effects are also different depending on the specific neurochemistry of the person taking it. What might be an effective, nootropic dose for one person may make another person unpleasantly anxious. Preliminary evidence suggests that people who suffer from panic disorders have an increased sensitivity to the ill effects of caffeine and are more likely to abstain from its consumption as a result (23).

How To Achieve The Best Effects From Caffeine

Achieving a nootropic effect from caffeine requires having a little bit more often, rather than having a lot all at once, which can lead to negative side effects followed by a corresponding crash. 

Due to the variation in caffeine concentration in beverages depending on the brewing method, it can be hard to predict exactly how much caffeine one is taking. A cup of coffee usually contains about 80-100mg of caffeine, but this depends on the coffee.

A medium-sized cup of Starbucks coffee contains about 330mg of coffee, almost all of the recommended maximum daily dose of 400mg. What’s more, the same sized cup of coffee from Dunkin’ Donuts contained almost 100mg less caffeine when tested side by side (24).

It can be useful to take caffeine as a supplement in pill form, rather than as a drink. This way, you can be sure of exactly how much you are taking, making it easier to stay in the therapeutic window and experience the corresponding increases in mood, memory, and focus.

Some caffeine pill formulations also contain compounds to alleviate side effects, making them more useful as nootropic supplements. The most common of these is L-Theanine. The combination of this amino acid and caffeine occurs naturally in green tea and is responsible for the reported psychoactive effects of the drink.

The combination of the two compounds was shown to increase cognitive performance more than the placebo or either compound alone, according to a randomized trial that used subjective performance tests while also electrically measuring brain activity (25).

Summary

Before the modern wealth of research on caffeine’s effects was accumulated, caffeine usage – in particular, coffee drinking – was thought to be an unhealthy habit, like smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol. Science has shown that the opposite is true: caffeine usage confers a whole host of physiological benefits.

Moderate doses of caffeine – usually under 400mg a day, though the limit is different for different people – can heighten your focus, improve your mood, and aid your memory. It is, therefore, an ideal nootropic, capable of improving your mental performance in a variety of contexts, including studying and at work.

In contrast, too much caffeine can have the opposite effect. Uncomfortable physical conditions, usually perceived as ‘the jitters’, can result from too high a dosage. These can come with anxiety levels. Some people, especially those suffering from panic disorders, may be more sensitive to these effects.

To get the balance right, the user must pay attention to how they are taking caffeine and in what form. To this end, nootropic formulations can help. Taking caffeine in a capsule form results in a slower release, as well as providing an easy way to control your dosage. To top it off, synergistic compounds that help to improve the positive effects and negate the negative ones can be included in the formulation.

Appropriate consumption of caffeine confers a host of benefits to the user, which makes it a great nootropic. Its worldwide popularity suggests that most people already know this – but with a more conscious usage, the improvements in your focus, mood, and memory can be even greater.

The post How Caffeine Improves Mood, Memory, And Focus appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

But how does fish oil really affect the brain, and is it really an effective nootropic?

What Is Fish Oil?

Fish oil is a common dietary supplement that is made up of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids are found in oily fish such as tuna and anchovies, which is the main natural source of omega-3 for most people. People typically take fish oil because of its perceived ability to improve joint health, prevent disease, aid in slowing down aging, and also improving brain health. 

For those who don’t eat regular (1-2 servings per week) servings of fatty fish, supplements like fish oil are a great way to ensure you are consuming enough omega-3 fatty acids. 

There are two omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish oil:

• Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
• Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

EPA And DHA 

The ratio of EPA/DHA in fish oil can vary quite a lot, but you tend to see higher amounts of EPA in fish oil supplements because it has less of that fishy smell often attributed to fish oil, and EPA is also cheaper to produce. 

Both EPA and DHA are often confused for each other and there is still more to learn about the individual role they play in improving brain health. It is thought that EPA has an antidepressant effect and improves cognitive health, while DHA acts more on cognitive health. 

Studies have shown that EPA and DHA may be able to improve and possibly even prevent certain brain disorders including psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. It is thought that these omega-3 acids might be able to improve brain health by “modulating neuroimmune and apoptotic pathways, changing membrane function and/or competing with n-6 PUFAs which are the precursors of inflammatory mediators” (1). However, the exact mechanisms of each omega-3 fatty acid are not exactly known, specifically how they modulate neuroimmune response and neurogenesis, how they (EPA and DHA) interact with each other, and what the most ideal ratio of EPA to DHA is for improving brain health. 

One study looked into the effect that EPA and DHA had on the brain of developing mice. After feeding the mice a milk formula containing 1.3% EPA or 1.3% DHA the results showed that the EPA groups had intermediate brain performance while the DHA groups clearly showed improved brain function, indicating that DHA is essential for brain development at early stages (2). 

DHA makes up 30% of fatty acids in the neuronal membranes of the brain, making it the most prominent fatty acid. DHA is also enriched in synaptosomal membranes. DHA is thought to be involved in “multiple inter-related brain functions including cell membrane fluidity, signal transduction, and neurotransmission” (2). DHA is also thought to be the main omega-3 fatty acid involved in the metabolism of the brain. 

But how is DHA transported through the brain? According to research, the “major facilitator superfamily domain-containing protein 2a (Mfsd2a) has recently been identified as the major transporter for the uptake of DHS (in the lysophosphatidylcholine form) into the brain”. We know that EPA can also cross the blood-brain barrier like DHA, however, it is present in brain tissue at significantly lower levels than DHA and we don’t yet know the mechanism that transports EPA (2). 

We know that DHA is largely found in the phospholipids of cell membranes where it can modulate the physical environment of the membrane and possibly increase the free volume within the membrane bilayer (3). One of the mechanisms that might allow DHA to do this is by the modulation of G-protein coupled receptors through proteins such as rhodopsin, which is closely linked to the G-protein coupled receptors in cell membranes (4). 

Benefits Of Fish Oil

Omega-3 And Cognitive Health In Individuals With Depression

Higher overall omega-3 fatty acid levels (including DHA and EPA) have also been shown in one study to be associated with improved cognitive skills in patients who had suffered from depression and were at risk for impaired cognitive health. Age and sex did not seem to play a role in improved cognitive health, however, education was shown to play a role (5). This could indicate that higher education plays a role in healthy lifestyle choices that can affect cognitive function. 

Another study looking at patients with mild cognitive impairment showed that patients with mild cognitive impairment had lower EPA levels and higher depressive scores (6). With depression being shown to facilitate the progression of mild cognitive impairment to dementia, this could indicate a link between EPA, depression, and dementia.  

It seems that omega-3 fatty acids may be able to have a direct impact on depression. One meta-analysis looked into whether EPA might work as a treatment of major depressive episodes. Analyzing 15 trials and over 900 participants, the meta-analysis found that fish oil supplements containing more than 60% EPA were an effective treatment of primary depression (7). 

Much of the research on fatty acids and depression seems to show a link between EPA and improved depression symptoms, rather than DHA. Another meta-analysis looked into just this and sought to find whether EPA, DHA, or a combination of both are responsible for the reported omega-3 benefits to depression and mental health. Looking at 28 double-blind, placebo-controlled, and randomized controlled trials, the meta-analysis found that patient’s depression symptoms were significantly reduced in EPA supplement use in 21 of the studies. However, DHA didn’t show as successful results. The meta-analysis showed that DHA actually made no significant reduction to patient depression symptoms in 7 of the studies. The researchers concluded that EPA might be more effective than DHA in treating depression symptoms (8). 

It is thought that inflammation might be responsible for increased levels of stress and depression, with inflammatory markers shown to increase in depression patients (9). We also know that “inflammatory cytokines can produce depressive symptoms in humans” (7) which might also explain the link. This connects back to omega-3 because fatty acids like omega-3 have been shown to reduce pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and cytokine levels, resulting in an anti-inflammatory effect (10). EPA has also been shown to increase anti-inflammatory prostaglandin production and is associated with an increased risk of depression (11). 

Fatty Acids Anti-Inflammatory Effect

EPA and DHA both seem to be involved in reducing inflammation in the brain (3). Resolvins, maresins, and neuroprotectins are all lipid mediator derivatives of EPA and DHA that are involved in slowing down inflammation and it has been shown that they actively shut down inflammation reactions resulting in protection for organs from collateral damage and helping to clear inflammatory debris (12).

One study that was focused on obese adolescents showed that when participants took omega-3 capsules daily, there was improved hyperemia response, which is when blood rushes to a specific place in the body to induce inflammation. The omega-3 capsules also seemed to decrease important levels of factors in inflammation responses including lymphocytes, monocytes, and TNF-𝛼, IL-6, and IL-1𝛃 levels. The study concluded that taking omega-3 capsules daily could result in reduced inflammation (13). 

Another study involving healthy young adults instead showed that participants who were given omega-3 supplements had a 14% reduction in lipopolysaccharide stimulated interleukin 6 production. Interleukin is an important cytokine responsible for regulating immune responses and so a reduction in interleukin could result in reduced inflammation. Interestingly the study also found that participants found a 20% reduction in anxiety after taking the omega-3 supplements. Conclusions stated that omega-3 supplements may be able to reduce inflammation, even among healthy young adults who aren’t as susceptible to inflammation (14). 

Fatty Acids In The Brain 

Your brain contains a large number of lipids or fats and due to this, it is assumed that different fatty acids in the brain can affect brain functions like cognition and neuropsychiatric development in a variety of ways. Interestingly, DHA levels in the brain tend to increase over the first 20 years of your life before they then start to level off. 

Fish Intake And Cognitive Health 

It seems that increasing your fish oil intake largely shows positive results in improving cognitive health. 

The Rotterdam Study was a large-scale longitudinal study that looked into whether there was a link between fish intake and cognitive health in 5000 healthy participants 55 years or older. The study found that higher levels of fish in a diet seemed to reduce the risk of dementia in patients by 50% after 2 years. However, follow up research with the same patients 6 years later showed that 4% had gone on to develop dementia. Nonetheless, further research seemed to back up the initial 2-year results of this study (15). One similar study out of France showed that adults older than 68 years who ate at least one fish meal a week saw their risk of Alzheimer’s disease reduced by 35% (16). Another study from Chicago found that adults over 65 years old saw cognition decline significantly reduce over 6 years after eating a regular fish intake (17). 

This is perhaps not surprising when you look at the research around omega-3 and cognitive health. One double-blind, placebo-controlled study looked at healthy adults and the effects of either DHA or EPA heavy fish oil taken daily for 12 weeks. DHA fish oil participants showed a significant increase in the markers associated with increased blood flow to the brain, while the EPA oil showed no significant changes (18). This indicates that DHA may be able to improve blood flow, and thus oxygenation to the brain. 

How Fish Oil Might Help Alzheimer’s Patients

Research also indicates that Alzheimer’s disease and aging may be associated with a reduction of omega-3 fatty acids in the brain and interestingly we see lower DHA levels in parts of the brain associated with Alzheimer’s disease in Alzheimer’s patients (19). 

Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease that is most often seen in the elderly. It starts with milder symptoms but as it progresses can be particularly debilitating as patients start to lose memory, develop cognitive impairment, and ultimately stop being able to do essential day to day activities. Physiologically, Alzheimer’s is “characterized pathologically by the presence of cerebral β-amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles composed of hyper-phosphorylated tau and neurodegeneration” (19). There are also genetic risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease, with the presence of the apolipoprotein E ɛ4 allele being linked to the main form of Alzheimer’s Disease. Diet and physical and mental activity may also play a part in developing Alzheimer’s disease. 

A three-year trial investigating the effects of DHA and EPA on Alzheimer’s prevention found some interesting results. The study involved patients who were over 70 years old with memory complaints and described as frail. They found that when patients were given low levels of DHA and EPA, they showed a reduced cognitive decline over 36 months. The patients who received the placebo instead of the DHA/EPA mix reported significant cognitive decline over the same 36 months, with the exception of placebo participants who happened to have higher omega-3 levels naturally, they managed to maintain stable cognitive health (20). Backing up these results, another study showed that elderly participants with ranging cognitive statuses (normal to suspected dementia) showed a connection between low omega-3 levels and cognitive impairment (21). 

Structural Brain Changes

One longitudinal study involving magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of 1,111 participants who didn’t have dementia showed that higher omega-3 levels were linked to a significant increase in both brain and hippocampal volume and lower omega-3 levels possibly increased the breakdown of cell tissue in the brain (atrophy) (22). Another study of dementia-free individuals found that lower levels of DHA were linked to lower overall brain volume. The study also found that those with low DHA levels scores had reduced scores in visual memory, executive function, and abstract thinking tests compared to participants with higher DHA levels (23). 

Fish Oil Tablet Study

While there seems to be significant evidence supporting the idea that omega-3 fatty acids improve brain health and cognition, consumers are taking fish oil supplements and may want to know if those supplements have a similar effect. 

One study looking at just this and involving 350 participants over a long period of time showed that the study participants who took fish oil supplements regularly had significantly increased levels of omega-3 fatty acid levels than those who didn’t. The study also showed that the increased levels of DHA from the fish oil supplements seemed to result in better cognitive performance later in life and particularly improved immediate recall, even after cognitive performance was adjusted for childhood IQ (24). 

How To Take Fish Oil 

Fish oil is well known for its strong taste and odor and as such most people prefer to take fish oil capsules rather than drinking fish oil. It is also advisable to take the fish oil capsules while eating to try and reduce the residual taste of the oil that might occur when burping. 

As we know, EPA and DHA can have a range of different effects on the body and therefore you can choose your fish oil based on the EPA/DHA ratio that you want for your symptoms. 

Don’t let the strong smell confuse you, fish oil can spoil, and taking rancid fish oil can result in some risks. In light of this, when buying or taking fish oil it is advisable to look for a fish oil supplement that contains a preservative like vitamin E and is in a black-out container that would let light in to degrade the fish oil. 

Daily fish oil capsules of 1 gram taken orally should provide you with some health benefits and you can increase slightly if you want a higher dose of omega-3 to around 6 grams. 

Summary

Fish oil seems to be a viable nootropic compound as it improves brain health. The omega-3 fatty acids can be divided into EPA and DHA. EPA has been shown to improve mental functioning and depression while DHA has been shown to change brain structure, while both EPA and DHA are thought to be involved in stopping inflammation and the development of Alzheimer’s disease. 

Some of the mechanisms in which these fatty omega-3 acids act are not quite known, and more research is needed. Fish oil may not be a fasting-acting nootropic in the traditional sense, but it is clear omega-3 fatty acids improve brain health.

The post Fish Oil: The Brain-Boosting Benefits Of Omega-3 Fatty Acids appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) are complex neurodevelopmental conditions strongly influenced by genetic factors and biological and psychosocial risk factors, possibly including physical abuse. 

ADD is ADHD without symptoms of hyperactivity, people sometimes use the terms interchangeably. ADHD is the most common developmental condition in children, affecting an estimated 4-15% of school aged children (1). 

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) the quantity of children that are being diagnosed with ADHD is continuing to increase. It is often carried through to adult life with studies suggesting that about 4% of adults may have ADHD (2). 

The definition of ADHD rests on specific criteria (3) and relates to a primary school-aged child. ADHD can affect the emotions and behavior of people in different ways. There are three subtypes that people with ADHD generally associate with:

1. Predominantly inattentive – a person may stray from their task, have difficulty remaining focused, and be disorganized not by intention or lack of understanding 
2. Predominantly hyperactive and/or impulsive – hyperactivity may be seen when a person constantly moves, fidgets, taps, or talks. Impulsivity is recognized in hasty actions that occur without initial thought processes. 
3. Combination of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity

In adults, ADHD presentation differs with problems of hyperactivity less prevalent, but problems with inattention likely to persist. 

Individuals with ADHD are suspected of having weakened functions in their prefrontal cortex (4). Neuropsychological and imaging studies suggest patients with ADHD have a weaker prefrontal cortex that contributes largely to their symptom presentations (4). 

The prefrontal cortex is responsible for guiding behavior, thoughts, and feelings. It determines our ability to regulate attention, monitor actions, and form plans. Individuals with ADHD have been found to be consequently low in dopamine and other important neurotransmitters. Symptoms of ADHD including poor concentration, impulsivity, and hyperactivity may all originate from the weakened cortex.

Individuals with ADHD are at higher risk of physical health conditions including immune system dysfunction (5). Children are more likely to experience difficulties in getting to sleep (6), and regulating mood (7).   

Treatments And Therapies

While there is no cure for ADHD, treatments are available to reduce the symptoms and improve the quality of life for ADHD patients. Some parents find making alterations to the environment, such as the removal of distractions and creating a routine is important. Lifestyle habits including yoga, meditation, and physical activity have also been supported to prevent ADHD symptoms. Some individuals choose to follow elimination diets or reduce sugar intake to improve their symptoms. Medications and lifestyle interventions may help.

Medications

First-line treatment for ADHD is a central nervous stimulant aimed at treating the three main aspects of ADHD: inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. These medicines work by increasing the chemicals dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, both of which play essential roles in thinking and attention (3). Dopamine has an important role in generating motivation, memory, and attention. Norepinephrine has been linked with arousal and helping to sustain prolonged attention.  

Methylphenidate, one of the most common ADHD medications, works by blocking the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine and increasing their release into the space outside the neurons (8). Collectively, prescription stimulants have calming and focusing effects on individuals with ADHD. 

Melatonin, a hormone produced by the brain’s pineal gland is available in the form of supplements and has proven effective for children with ADHD. 

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has also deemed the use of three non-stimulant medications acceptable for the treatment of ADHD.

Behavioral Therapy

Behavioral therapy can be an effective treatment method for ADHD. It works at replacing negative behavioral habits with positive ones. This method is most effective when used in young children and is delivered by parents using reward systems. 

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can also help to address functional impairments that may be present in ADHD. A randomized controlled trial of adolescents with ADHD showed patients who received CBT showed significantly reduced symptoms of ADHD and functional impairment (9). Similar results have been seen in adult ADHD populations (10).

How Nootropics May Help ADHD and ADD

There is a growing interest of parents with children suffering from ADHD to treat with natural therapies (11). Natural therapies offer an alternative or complementary medicine that may either lessen the need for stimulant therapies or eliminate it altogether. Nootropics may be of particular interest when stimulant medications are not indicated, for example in patients with heart conditions, or abnormal blood pressure and/or heart rate. Alternatively, they may appeal to people who do not respond well to prescription medications. A study indicated that around 30% of children may experience appetite changes, difficulty sleeping, nausea, anxiety, dizziness, abdominal pain or headaches (8). Such responses highlight a niche for alternative therapies to thrive. 

Animal studies indicate that the prefrontal cortex is highly sensitive to changes in the neurochemical environment. Suboptimal levels of catecholamine levels – dopamine and norepinephrine are likely to reduce the functioning of the cortex (12). The most effective treatments for ADHD are those that target the maintenance of neurotransmitters, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the brain (12). Nootropics that closely match these actions can supposedly work to increase focus, positive mood, and motivation. 

Traditional herbal remedies including chamomile, kava kava, and valerian are valued due to their anxiolytic, calming effects for treating restlessness, lower concentration, and sleep difficulties in ADHD (13). Furthermore, a considerable body of evidence exists to support the idea that vitamin and mineral deficiencies are linked with hyperactivity and impulsivity in ADHD (13).  

Omega-3 Supplements

Fatty acids are one of the more well-researched nootropic supplements. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are fundamental for regular human physiological functioning. It is critical they are consumed through the diet as they cannot be synthesized by the body. Fatty acids are integral parts of the brain structure and function, particularly omega-6 arachidonic acid (AA), and omega-3 eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (EPA and DHA) (14). Fatty fish, such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel, are all rich sources of DHA and EPA as well as enriched eggs (15). A systematic review on the evidence of herbal and nutritional products in the treatment of ADHD found omega-3 from fish oil, DHA or flaxseed oil to be the heaviest researched nutritional medicine for ADHD treatment (14). 

The association between a relative lack of omega-3 fatty acids and the development of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental issues, of which ADHD is included, has grown a considerable body of evidence (14). There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that a relative lack of omega-3 fatty acids may play a part in several neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders including ADHD (14).  However, studies continue to show inconsistencies in results. One study to find a positive association was carried out in a group of 132 Australian children (16). The authors reported marked improvement on hyperactivity and inattention scales for those children randomly assigned to receive omega-3 supplementation (558 mg/day EPA and 174 mg/day DHA). 

Data also exists to suggest that deficiencies of omega-3 fatty acids may be linked to increased hostility in adolescents (17). Long-term omega-3 deficiencies in animal studies have also resulted in reduced dopamine concentrations and its decreased binding to receptors, resulting in attention and behavior dysfunctions (18).

Omega-3 and 6 fatty acids have also proven successful in the commencement and maintenance of regular sleep patterns (19, 20). It is common for those with ADHD to experience small abnormalities in vision or hearing (21). DHA has been identified for its critical role in the effective functioning of the visual system (22). 

Dosing in children is recommended to start at 500 mg and ranges up to 4000 mg/day (23). Adolescents are generally recommended doses ranging from 1000-4000mg/day (23) and some adults may require doses of 9000 mg (24). 

Supplements are mostly well tolerated with the most frequently occurring side effects presenting as nausea or diarrhea (25).    

Zinc

Zinc is a mineral that can be obtained in the diet through food sources including meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Zinc has an important role in brain function, and the prevention of brain diseases, it is a crucial cofactor for the anabolism of neurotransmitters and melatonin. Melatonin helps to regulate dopamine function (26). Zinc is also required for the effective metabolism of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). As discussed under the segment on fatty acids, higher PUFAs concentrations are linked to reducing ADHD symptoms (27). 

A study of 400 patients with ADHD compared 12 weeks of zinc sulfate supplementation (150mg/day) with a placebo. Treatment with zinc sulfate significantly improved hyperactivity, impulsivity and impaired socialization symptoms of ADHD (28). A second study comparing methylphenidate and zinc to methylphenidate and a placebo over 6 weeks demonstrated zinc sulfate significantly improved Parent and Teacher Rating Scales indicative of behavior and attention (29).  

Though the exact mechanism remains unclear, it is speculated the effect may be in part be due to zinc’s effect on increasing serotonin. Zinc is an essential cofactor for the formation of pyridoxal phosphate which helps convert tryptophan to serotonin, promoting calmness (28). Improving the nutritional status of zinc in the body is likely to improve ADHD symptoms (30). 

The most commonly reported adverse effects of zinc supplementation are a metallic mouth taste followed by nausea and vomiting (28). Overall, the supplement is well-tolerated in patients with ADHD. 

Caffeine

Caffeine is one of the most widely used psychostimulants worldwide (31). It is found in many beverages including coffee, tea, and soft drinks, as well as in chocolate. 

A review of 19 studies on the effectiveness of treating ADHD in children with caffeine concluded that all studies consistently found at least one benefit of caffeine (32). Increased attentiveness to tasks and lower levels of aggression were amongst some of the positive benefits. Similar results were found in adults where caffeine helped adults stay on task (33), increase reaction times, and enhance their ability to perform complex and intense tasks (34). 

It has been proposed that the enhanced cognitive effects of caffeine may be due to its inhibition of the action of adenosine. Adenosine in an inhibitory neurotransmitter that depresses the nervous system (35) promoting sleep. Caffeine’s inhibitory effect on adenosine supports feelings of alertness. Caffeine also increases the activation of dopaminergic receptors (36) and causes further release of norepinephrine and epinephrine (37). 

In children, the recommended dose of caffeine is around 2.5 mg/kg/day. Adverse effects have been observed between 300 – 400 mg/day (38). In adolescents, caffeine is typically administered at a dose of 200mg every 4 hourly (38).  

S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine (SAMe)

SAMe is a compound found naturally within the body that contributes to cell division and repair. SAMe is an effective antidepressant that regulates the activity of catecholaminergic symptoms. Specifically, it stimulates the synthesis of those involved in the symptoms of ADHD, namely dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin (38). 

A study in adults found the administration of SAMe had a positive effect on distractibility and self-control symptoms of ADHD (39), however, the effect was potentially due to the effect of SAMe on mood alone. 

Benefits of SAMe are thought to be short-term (40), lasting between two and three months (38). Evidence for efficacy remains limited and its effectiveness as a nutritional supplement for ADHD is mostly based on rational rather than clinical studies. 

Inositol

Inositol or vitamin B8 is an isomer of glucose. Inositol is thought to increase levels of serotonin in the brain and may be involved with the actions of dopamine and norepinephrine. Increased serotonin promotes calmness.

Some studies have found the use of Inositol to worsen the symptoms of ADHD (42) which others have found it is linked to improved symptoms in children (43).

Inositol is typically dosed between 12 and 18g daily (41). In quantities up to 20g per day, it is generally well-tolerated (44).

Pycnogenol

Pycnogenol is the collective name for procyanidins that originate from the bark of pine trees Pinus maritima. The use of Pycnogenol for its antioxidant and possible anti-inflammatory effects has existed in Europe for decades, mostly in the treatment of hyperactivity. It is thought to impact the release of dopamine and norepinephrine

In a singular case study, pycnogenol supplements were given to individuals with ADHD for four weeks. Large declines were seen in symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity (45). 

A later investigation on 61 children and adolescents with ADHD found that taking 1 mg/kg body weight of pine bark extract for a month also had beneficial effects on ADHD. Hyperactivity was reduced, and attention and visual-motor coordination were increased, with results more profound in males (46). 

Pycnogenol is most often dosed at a level of 1 mg to every kilogram of body weight in children. Adult doses range between 25–200 mg/day. Pycnogenol is mostly well tolerated (25). 

Ningdong Granule

Ningdong granule is a preparation used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of diseases in China for centuries. 

A double-blind trial was conducted on 72 children with ADHD who were randomized to receive either Ningdong granule (5 mg/kg/day) or methylphenidate, one of the most common and effective drugs for ADHD symptom improvements. The authors reported that Ningdong granule improved symptoms of ADHD with fewer side effects than methylphenidate. It was recommended as a safe and effective ADHD treatment for children in the short-term, with further research required for long term efficacy (47).  

Iron

Evidence on the link between iron and ADHD is a little less convincing. The positive effects reported thus far are thought to result from addressing iron deficiencies (48). Non-anaemic ADHD children with existing low ferritin levels were randomized to receive either oral iron (ferrous sulfate 80 mg/day), or a placebo (49). Iron supplementation significantly improved symptoms of ADHD when compared to the placebo. Supplementation was well tolerated and the effectiveness of treatment was regarded by authors to be comparable to stimulants. However, there appear to be limited benefits of additional iron for individuals with normal ferritin levels. 

Acetyl-L Carnitine

Acetyl-L carnitine is a metabolite that is essential for the production of energy, and the synthesis of fatty acids. 

A study on 112 children with ADHD randomized participants to receive either a placebo, or 1000 mg/day – 3000 mg/day of acetyl-L carnitine (depending on the weight of the child). The authors reported that there was little effect of treatment on the overall study population, however, when the population was broken down into its subtypes of ADHD, trends appeared. Those with the inattentive type of ADHD experienced greater benefits with acetyl-L carnitine supplementation over the placebo (50). 

Summary

When it comes to nootropics for the relief of ADHD symptoms, there are many natural therapies with promising evidence. Once again, the role of neurotransmitters ranks in as a highly important consideration for the treatment of ADHD and ADD. Nootropics that promote increased concentrations of dopamine and norepinephrine appear to provide suitable complementary or alternative therapies to stimulant medications. 

Nootropics, also recognized throughout the literature as ‘smart drugs’, ‘cognitive enhancers’, and ‘neuroenhancers’, have a place in the treatment of ADHD symptoms. Though many nootropics are advertised for their protective effect on ADHD, supporting evidence is often low quality or may be based on rationale alone. The nootropics discussed in this article show promising therapeutic potential for their use to reduce ADHD symptoms. 

Always discuss with your pharmacist or doctor before taking nootropics and ADHD medication at the same time to prevent negative drug-drug interactions.

The post Best Natural Nootropics for ADHD & ADD appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

In this article, we’re going to discuss the science behind brain fog and how certain nootropics could help alleviate it.

What Is Brain Fog?

Difficulty multitasking, poor focus and concentration, struggling to recall words or ideas relating to the task at hand, decreased ability to learn new things, low energy and mood, accompanied by slower cognitive processing, are all normal symptoms that accompany the process of aging. 

These symptoms and more are generally mild and gradual changes experienced by many people from their fifth decade of life onwards. Ensuring adequate exercise and rest accompanied by a diet of high-quality food is the general approach to resolving the aforementioned symptoms, and usually enough to prevent serious cognitive decline in the short-term. 

However, if these symptoms appear earlier in life, and are transient and sporadic, this may be an episode of the phenomenon known scientifically as dyscognition, commonly known as ‘brain fog’. 

Although symptomatically similar, brain fog is not part of the normal process of aging, and could be a cause for concern if constantly and progressively experienced without adequate reason. Brain fog is a type of cognitive dysfunction that although is not regarded as a medical disorder in itself, may be an indicator of an underlying condition or a state commonly described as mental fatigue, or burnout. 

Stress-related burnout is an increasingly prevalent feature in the workers of Western society due to long-term occupational stress and other factors related to the modern lifestyle. Not only do these factors contribute to anxiety and the cognitive phenomenon known as brain fog, unresolved chronic stress has also been shown to induce structural changes in the grey-matter volume of the brain over time (1).

There are a number of reasons that brain fog can occur, and accordingly, a variety of approaches to begin solving the problem. The most important thing to do is to identify the probable cause in order to begin to resolve the issue.

Recognizing an episode of brain fog is not necessarily cause for alarm. Generally symptoms of brain fog are temporary and reversible, although it does indicate a need to address the reasons for it. 

Many people will reach for some sort of caffeinated beverages such as tea or coffee in an effort to increase wakefulness and concentration lost to the fog. While this will almost certainly help in the short-term, without employing additional strategies, the benefits of caffeine are likely to diminish in the long-term if causes of brain fog are not addressed. 

Continuous caffeine ingestion requires escalated doses of caffeine to achieve the same or lesser effect, while possibly adding to the overall burden due to increased dehydration or further stimulation of an already overworked cognitive system. Another issue is caffeine dependency, and the cognitive difficulties experienced by many when they attempt to lower or cease their consumption, which mimic and may contribute to the difficulties experienced as brain fog.

The purpose of this article is to review the evidence available for nootropic approaches which might aid in diminishing or relieving brain fog symptoms for good.

Triggers Of Brain Fog

Various triggers for brain fog have been reported by sufferers, the most frequently reported in younger people include physical fatigue, lack of sleep, prolonged standing, dehydration, and feeling faint (1).

Possible Causes Of Brain Fog

Diet

Diet can be a major cause of brain-fog symptoms. Inadequate nutrition, unbalanced gut microflora, and food intolerances can lead to poor sleep, recovery, and increased inflammation, which can all contribute to the brain-fog equation. Ensuring adequate nutrition and a diet rich in micronutrients, combined with foods that promote a healthy balance of gut microflora is an important part of maintaining vitality and keeping energy levels up. 

Hormonal Effects

Hormones are major players in how we think and feel, when normal hormone levels are unbalanced by changes such as menopause, pregnancy, or chronic stress, regular brain function may be disrupted, accompanied by resulting symptoms of brain fog.

Medications

Also described by those who experience it as ‘Chemo fog’ or ‘Chemo brain’ brain fog is a common experience for those undergoing chemotherapy treatments for ailments such as cancer. In these instances, brain fog can arise due to the treatment itself, or other issues such as extra stress, poor sleeping, fatigue, infection, or changes in blood count, including anemia or low white blood cells. Although generally short-term, with symptoms resolving once treatments have ended, brain fog in this instance can have a longer duration of months, or possibly years. It is important to talk with your doctor if experiencing brain fog when undergoing medical treatment, they may be able to offer changes-to or alternative treatments, make adjustments to dosing, and explore, eliminate or address other possibilities such as infection, and low red or white blood counts.

Sleep

Sleep is an important part of the daily decluttering, rest, and repair process that is vital for optimum brain function. Without an adequate quantity of quality sleep, the brain simply doesn’t have enough time to perform its own ‘housekeeping’ in order to maintain smooth operation and optimum energy levels. Stress and some hormone levels are linked directly to appropriate levels of rest, and can feed-back into the process, leading to further sleeping issues and greater stress if left unaddressed for too long. 

Stress

Stress is commonly a central-player in the brain fog equation. Short-term stress is generally considered normal and healthy. Stress signals for changes in brain and body-system operation that can be beneficial in the short-term, prompting increased productivity, increased cognition, boosting memory and motivation as a means to resolve the stimulus causing stress. Unresolved or ‘chronic stress’ may become a problem. Continually driving the systems that heighten awareness and motivation for an extended duration, leads to a decrease in the effect of their signals, in turn wearing these systems down. Stress often leads to changes in sleeping and in food intake patterns, resulting in too much, or inadequate sleep and poor nutritional choices.  

Underlying Medical Conditions

Brain fog may be a symptom of an underlying medical condition. It is important to visit your doctor for a check-up if the previous possible causes of brain fog have been considered and eliminated. If brain fog symptoms continue inexplicably for more than a short period of time, or worsen, it’s imperative to consider and eliminate the possibility they may stem from something more serious. Some of these reasons may be relatively easily addressed, but it’s important to have them diagnosed by a professional in order to ensure a comprehensive assessment of possible causes and professional testing to eliminate those that aren’t responsible.

A variety of medical conditions are known to lead to brain-fog like symptoms, such as: 

• Anemia
• Autoimmune diseases such as MS, Ulcerative colitis, Lupus and arthritis
• Chronic fatigue syndrome.
• Dehydration
• Depression
• Diabetes
• Fibromyalgia
• Hypothyroidism

Some conditions are resolvable by simple lifestyle adjustments, dietary changes or supplements, for instance dehydration or anemia. Others such as autoimmune disease or hypothyroidism may require professional diagnosis and specialized treatments to adequately treat and manage them. Once under control, it is likely that brain fog symptoms will decrease or become more manageable too.

What Are Nootropics?

Beyond lifestyle adjustments such as better nutrition, more sleep, rest, and ensuring adequate time to de-stress, nootropics may offer supplementary support in the battle to clear the fog.

Nootropics are cognitive enhancers which may provide benefits such as improved mood, increased mental energy, clarity of thought, better memory recall, and greater concentration. However, not all nootropics are built equally. 

Some nootropics with anecdotally purported benefits fail to cross the line when put to the test scientifically. Others have inadequate evidence in human clinical trials, relying on preclinical animal studies for the validity of therapeutic claims, which although positive indicators of probable mechanisms that might afford benefits, may not translate when used in human trials. 

Here are some of the best nootropics for brain-fog, as backed by research:

Best Nootropics To Get Rid Of Brain Fog

Brain fog affects focus, cognition, memory and mood, accordingly, the best nootropics to benefit those with brain fog, will primarily target those symptoms.

Alpha Lipoic Acid (ALA)

Known for its effects on memory and cognition, ALA also increases the body’s ability to recycle antioxidant vitamins such as Vitamin A and C, levels of which, have been implicated by studies to have a major effect on cognition, especially during stressful times and aging. Properties of ALA include improved memory and neuroprotective effects. ALA has been shown to promote increases in levels of neurotransmitters and their receptors which are normally known to decline with age (2).

A 600mg daily dose of ALA is considered safe long-term (3). 

Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo biloba has been proven convincingly effective in the relief of mild cognitive impairment. Recent reviews of studies on standardized ginkgo biloba extract show consistent positive effects on cognition and as a neuroprotectant when in the upper dosing range of 240mg daily (4, 5). Safety of ginkgo biloba extract was found to be superior to that of placebo within all trials conducted.  

Gotu Kola

Centella asiatica, also known as pennywort or gotu kola, is an herb that has a traditional history of use as a brain tonic in both Indian Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine. Gotu kola is commonly touted as a remedy for anxiety, depression, mental fatigue and memory loss. While animal studies show benefits in learning performance and memory retention. 

Clinical trials have mixed results. Possible reasons for these differences include various forms of supplement used, lack of standardization, unknown quality of plant used in the preparation, combination with other ingredients or inadequate doses in trials that failed to show efficacy.  

Gotu kola has been shown to improve mood and memory in several trials in humans when dosed at 3g daily (6). 

Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a potent cognitive enhancer and potent oxidative scavenger that protects the brain from the harmful effects of oxidative stress while recycling compounds such as superoxide. 

Vitamin C has a high concentration within the brain and cerebrospinal fluid (up to four times more than in the plasma) and is essential for the protection of neurons that have a high rate of oxidative metabolism.

Unlike many animals, humans cannot synthesize vitamin C themselves. Compounding this, vitamin C is water-soluble, meaning it isn’t retained for long within the body, necessitating daily intake to provide an adequate supply of this essential vitamin. Periods of greater stress increases the demand for vitamin C within the body. Illness and increased physical demand add to this requirement. 

Areas of highest vitamin C concentration within the brain including the amygdala, cerebral cortex, and hippocampus, which are responsible for emotions, survival instincts, memory, and higher-thought.

Inadequate intake of vitamin C or long-term demand on the systems that consume the greatest amount of vitamin C will certainly increase the need to ensure stores are adequately replenished. Vitamin C depletion in the brain is more impacted by long-term deficiency than in the short-term, highlighting the necessity to intake adequate amounts of this vitamin on a regular basis, rather than a ‘boom and bust’ intake many may apply during instances such as colds and flu.

Although further investigation is needed, reviews on studies into vitamin C and cognitive status have shown a strong link between inadequate vitamin C and decreased cognition in both normal and aged populations (7). Regular intake of vitamin C is essential for good cognition especially when feeling the symptoms of brain fog.

NADH And CoQ10

NADH is an amide form of vitamin B3, one of a family of vitamins that are key in unlocking energy from food. A placebo-controlled study of NADH in combination with co-enzyme Q10 in those with brain fog as a result of chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) showed improvements such as decreased fatigue, better cognition, and decreased brain-fog when compared to placebo (8). 

These results are promising enough to warrant larger studies to further investigate the benefits of this combination on those with other conditions leading to brain fog. Daily doses were 200mg CoQ10 and 20mg NADH for eight weeks. No problems with safety or side-effects were reported at this dose.  

Phosphatidylserine

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is an integral component of cell membranes and of the coating known as myelin which surrounds the axons of nerve cells. PS works to protect nerve-cell integrity, in turn conferring benefits in problem-solving, learning, memory and concentration (9).

Pilot studies have shown benefits in aging populations (10) while a study involving 122 individuals taking soybean-derived PS in combination with omega-3 polyunsaturated fat DHA showed statistically significant improvements in memory recognition, sustained attention, and overall cognition (11).

PS supplementation is considered safe when taken in split doses of up to 100mg three times daily (12). Doses above 300mg have been noted to cause gastrointestinal distress or insomnia in some individuals.

Rhodiola Rosea 

For centuries rhodiola rosea has been traditionally been used throughout Europe, Russia, and Asia as an antidepressant and ergogenic aid to relieve stress while boosting physical and mental performance (13). These properties are believed to arise from 2 active constituents: Rosavin and Salidrosides. Salidroside has neuroprotective effects against oxidative damage due to its ability to activate endogenous antioxidant enzymes (14).

Studies regarding the efficacy of rhodiola rosea extracts on stress, energy levels and cognition have reported benefits, although the evidence is mixed. Reviews of earlier literature identified the limitations of previous studies due to methodological flaws and possible bias suggesting further studies in order to assess the true efficacy of rhodiola rosea extracts. 

A 2017 study on 100 individuals with chronic fatigue reported benefits within the first week and statistically significant effects observable after 8 weeks of continuous ingestion (15). 

Rhodiola rosea extracts are considered safe, with no serious adverse events attributable to supplementation reported during any of the studies. Dosing is suggested at 400mg of extract daily.

Creatine

A potent cognitive enhancer, creatine helps fuel energy-intensive brain processes by recharging the phosphates on ATP molecules, the energetic currency of the cell, which are consumed as part of energy production by mitochondria, the energy-production centers of the cell.

Although creatine is produced endogenously, and may be acquired within the diet, the daily level of creatine use by the cells may be higher than that acquired by these means combined. This is where creatine supplementation can assist, providing additional creatine in a form that is able to be ingested and stored for future use on demand. 

Creatine has additional benefits in its antioxidant activity, which provides a neuroprotective capacity against oxidative inflammation (16).

Creatine has an excellent safety profile and is safe for long-term consumption without the need to cycle supplementation periods. Typical daily doses range from 2g to 5g, with 5 g considered an adequate dose for those with higher demands or body-mass (17).

Summary

Brain fog has a variety of causes and symptoms of varying intensity. 

Once the underlying cause has been established, there are a number of nootropics with excellent safety-profiles and beneficial potential to assist with banishing brain fog and improving cognitive function. 

Due to the diversity of causes and symptoms, a one-size-fits-all approach is unlikely to have the same benefits for everyone. 

A personalized custom-stack of nootropics that target the most relevant symptoms is likely to be the most effective method to comprehensively address the most troublesome features of brain fog.

The post Best Nootropics For Clearing Brain Fog appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

Understanding just how Noopept might be able to improve your cognitive abilities could lead to a range of performance-enhancing benefits including brain optimization, neuroprotection and an increase in creativity. 

What Is Noopept? 

Noopept is the brand name for the chemical N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine, a synthetic ethyl ester that acts as a nootropic. Noopept is sometimes referred to as a “smart drug” because of its ability to enhance brain function. Noopept is a synthetic version of Piracetam, which is itself a synthetic version of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in the function of the nervous system. Because it is synthetic, it is not naturally created in your body, and so you need to take it as a supplement in order to receive its benefits. 

Noopept was designed at the State Zakusov Institute in Moscow and is similar in structure to piracetam. They both contain a pyrrolidine ring with acylated nitrogen, amide moiety and a fragment of glycine (1). 

How Does Noopept Affect The Brain?

Noopept can induce a range of changes to brain function and there are a few ways in which it acts on cognitive mechanisms. 

One of the ways that Noopept can induce cognitive change is through its modulation of certain receptors. 

Noopept has been shown to increase:

• The expression of nerve growth factor (NGF)
• Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Research tells us that BDNF expression is increased in the cerebral cortex after chronic dosing, and that mRNA expression increased in the hippocampus after acute dosing. Importantly, studies also tell us that chronic (long term dosing) of Noopept didn’t result in the development of a tolerance to the drug, but instead may actually improve the effects of Noopept (2). 

NGF is a neuropeptide that was first discovered in 1950 that is mediated through two NGF-receptors known as trkA, a high-affinity receptor, and p75, a low-affinity transmembrane glycoprotein (3). NGF is a growth and survival factor and is also known as a neurotrophin, it plays a key role in the nervous system’s response to pain with its receptor trkA being found in the sensory neurons that respond to painful stimuli (4). NGF is also known to have a protective effect on nerve cells, acting on both the survival of neurons and the regulation of neurotransmitters and neuropeptide synthesis (3). 

BDNF is the most common growth factor in the central nervous system (CNS). BDNF is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of brain plasticity. Plasticity is the brain’s ability to change, which of course, is crucial to healthy cognitive function. BDNF largely signals through its strong affinity to the tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) receptor, where it induces dimerization and autophosphorylation of the receptor. This then can then lead to the activation of intracellular signaling cascades and an increase of NDMA receptor currents. BDNF also plays an important role in neuronal cell health and is necessary for the survival and development of GABA, dopaminergic, and serotonin neurons. BDNF belongs to the same family as NGF and may play a crucial role in learning and memory function, and mood regulation and it may be able to play a role in treating diseases like depression and schizophrenia (4). 

Messenger ribonucleic acid or mRNA is a molecule key to the expression of genetic information. The mRNA life cycle includes the transcription, export, and translation of genetic information which is key to the healthy functioning of neuronal cells (5). 

Noopept also modulates the receptors of AMPA, NMDA, and acetylcholine. This modulation occurs through Noopept increasing cycloprolylglycine (CPG), a dipeptide that can act on AMPA, NMDA, and acetylcholine receptors (6,7,8,9). The modulation of these receptors can allow for the proper levels of glutamate to be maintained (10). An excess of glutamate in neuronal cells can be toxic to cell health and can even cause cell death (11). 

Benefits Of Noopept

Involved in many brain functions and neuronal mechanisms, it might therefore not come as a surprise that Noopept has the ability to induce a variety of cognitive benefits. From improving memory to maintaining cognitive health, there are many reasons why Noopept might be the right fit for you. 

Improved Memory

One of the claims about Noopept is its ability to improve memory function. There are many reasons why an improved memory might be able to significantly improve your life. Tasks involved in work and hobbies can involve memory recall, which is damaged or lessened could significantly impact the quality and efficiency of someone’s work. Personal relationships also rely heavily on competent memory skills and might be greatly improved through peak memory function. There are also degenerative diseases related to energy that result in a reduction of memory, like Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. These diseases can be particularly debilitating to both patients and families and a drug like Noopept that has been shown to increase cognitive memory function may be able to offer a therapeutic treatment option. 

As previously discussed, Noopept was able in one study to increase BDNF levels in the hippocampus of rats. The hippocampus is an area of the brain that is associated with memory (2). We know that BDNF plays a crucial role in brain plasticity and possibly learning and memory functions and so it’s upregulation in an area of the brain associated with memory leads to the possibility that Noopept may be able to provide improvements to cognitive function by improving memory (5). 

One study investigated Noopept and how it might affect behavioral changes. Rats were used for the study and were given a bilateral olfactory bulbectomy. 

An olfactory bulbectomy involves the removal of the olfactory bulb, an area at the front of the brain that is usually associated with smell. Research tells us that the removal of the olfactory bulb in rats can lead to a range of deficits, including memory decreases, changes to food motivation, an increase in depression levels, and changes to behavior when using the Morris maze. The removal of the olfactory bulb is also thought to result in changes to a range of neurotransmitter systems (12). 

After the olfactory bulbectomy, the rat participants demonstrated impaired memory, neuronal damage, and Alzheimer’s disease symptoms. Noopept was then administered to the rats at a dose of 0.01/mg per kilo for 21 days and the results showed that it was able to improve spatial memory and increase the levels of some serum antibodies. It is also thought this increased immune response of Noopept, specifically on the Abeta35-35 peptide, may be responsible for the improvement in spatial memory seen in the rats (13). 

Improved Brain Health

Noopept may also be able to improve the health of neuronal cells that are key to proper functioning. Healthy and functioning brain cells are important for almost every aspect of cognitive functioning. If neuronal cells don’t work properly, or are at risk of cell death then things like memory, thought processes, mood, and even normal bodily functions are at risk of dysfunction. Just like any other part of your body, you want to keep brain cells healthy!

One study out of Russia looked into the neuroprotective properties of Noopept by causing toxicity in PC12 cells, a cell line derived from the brain cells of rats. Noopept was first added to the PC12 cells and then 72 hours later the dysfunctional cell environment was created. The cells were then evaluated to see how effective Noopept was in protecting cell functions such as viability, mitochondrial function, oxygen levels determined by ROS, calcium homeostasis, and neurite outgrowth from the induced damage. The results showed that Noopept was able to protect the neural cells and improve cell viability, enhance mitochondrial membrane potential, and reduce the number of apoptotic cells that induce cell death. This study showed that Noopept holds a lot of potential as an improver of cognitive function and in maintaining the viability of neural cells (14). 

Induce Relaxation 

We could all probably do with more relaxation in our lives, the everyday stresses and pressures we come across can have a serious negative impact on mental health and cognitive performance. While it can affect people differently, stress can result in mood disorders, sleep disorders, headaches, and pain. In fact, 33% of adults have been found to feel symptoms of stress (15). But stress is not just in your head, hormones like cortisol play a key role in stress symptoms. 

One study looked into how Noopept affects brain waves and the researchers found that Noopept, given at a 0.2mg per kg dose, managed to increase the activity of alpha waves, with a wait time of 30 and 40 minutes in all brain areas between Noopept administration and when the activity began (16). These results are significant in terms of Noopept’s ability to induce relaxation because an increase in the frequency of alpha frequency band waves is thought to provide a feeling of relaxation that occurs without drowsiness (17). Alpha frequency band waves have also been linked to feelings of joy and an improved ability to learn (18). 

Improve Performance 

Improved cognitive performance can have a range of benefits, encouraging better orientation, counting, observation, and memory skills to name a few. Noopept offers potential as an enhancer of cognitive performance. 

A 2009 study investigated the effect of Noopept on cognitive function and performance in participants with mild cognitive disorders caused by organic brain diseases. Participants in the study were given Noopept daily over the 56-day trial. Patients were given Mini-Mental Status Examinations (MMSE) and Cognitive Capacity Screen Examinations (CCSE) before and after the Noopept trial. The CCSE tests for memory, counting and orientation ability, and skills involved in determining and grouping certain objects. The MMSE measures cognitive impairment and tests for recall, language, calculation, and command-following abilities. The results showed that Noopept was able to improve cognitive function in the MMSE test and also demonstrated improved CCSE scores (19). 

Noopept’s Speed of Action 

In addition to the range of benefits that may be possible through Noopept use, the research also tells us that these Noopept benefits can be felt much faster than is often seen in nootropics. Some nootropics need to be taken for a long period of time before results are seen. Nootropics like bacopa monnieri, for example, may not demonstrate it’s cognitive benefits until weeks of use. Nootropics that show immediate results are beneficial because patients are able to quickly realize if the nootropic is ideal for them and then possibly adhere to its routine better as they know that they are able to see results. 

We know that Noopept is able to cross the blood-brain barrier, which is the barrier to neural cells, so by being able to cross this barrier, Noopept has an advantage over other nootropics that cannot, which may possibly increase its activation time (20). Studies have also demonstrated Noopept’s ability to induce a result within minutes, rather than the weeks that you might have to wait for some nootropic effects. In one study involving Noopept and glutamate receptors in rats, Noopept was able to induce an effect within 30 minutes of delivery (16). 

Proper Dosage

When it comes to any form of medication, understand the proper dosage to take is extremely important to ensure you are using it safely and with Noopepts faster delivery time, it makes correct dosing even more important.

An appropriate dose of Noopept seems to lie around 10 to 30 mg per day, which can be spread out over the day.  Noopept can be purchased either as a powder or as a solid pill or capsule. Taking Noopept on an empty stomach may be able to improve its absorption rate, and taking Noopept sublingually by letting it dissolve under the tongue is another effective method of delivery. Sublingual delivery allows nootropics like Noopept to avoid the lengthier delivery route of the digestive system and instead move directly into the bloodstream and be able to act faster. 

Side Effects

Most medications or supplements can induce side effects which can range from the very mild to the very severe. It’s important to understand what the side effects of a product are before consuming it so that you know what to be aware of, and what is a normal reaction. 

Noopept is thought to be relatively safe, with most studies involving Noopept reporting minimal or mild side effects. While side effects do seem to be rare with Noopept use, there may be a rise of some mild effects such as headaches, sore stomachs, and fatigue, which may occur when doses that are too high. One solution to the headaches could be choline supplements since a lack of choline has been linked to an increase in headaches (21). 

While Noopept is safe and most of the studies reported minimal side effects, one study has indicated that Noopept may be able to negatively impact sleep patterns and blood pressure levels. The study, published in the Journal of Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology, investigated Noopept as a treatment for patients with mild cognitive disorders. Unfortunately, 3 of the 46 patients had to drop out of the study because they experienced side effects of abrupt blood pressure changes and disturbances to regular sleep routines. While this was only one study, it is something to keep in mind when taking the side effects of Noopept into account (22).

Summary

Noopept is a synthetic nootropic that can induce a range of effects on the brain that positively affect cognitive function. By increasing the expression of NGF, BDNF, mRNA, AMPA, NMDA, and acetylcholine, Noopept has demonstrated an ability to improve conditions for optimal neural cell functioning. With this knowledge in mind, it is perhaps unsurprising that studies involving Noopept show such a range of cognitive improvements. Improvements to memory, cognitive health, stress levels, and cognitive performance have all been demonstrated results in scientific studies involving Noopept. 

While Noopept sounds like a “super-drug” it is important to remember that nootropics like Noopept are not a simple-cure all and while they may provide a boost to cognitive functions, they cannot change personality traits. 

There have been some side effects reported from Noopept use, from minimal effects including headaches and fatigue to the more serious blood pressure increases as evidenced in one study. Most studies investigating the effects of Noopept determined it to be safe and effective, but if you have any concerns about using it, or how it may interact with other medications or supplement then consult your doctor. 

As a booster to cognitive function Noopept seems to have proven itself and more research into the full range of effects you can expect from Noopept is very welcome. 

The post The Definitive Guide To Noopept appeared first on Nootropics Resources.

There is evidence that centrophenoxine can help improve neurotransmitter function, remove cellular waste, improve brain energy, and even impact mRNA synthesis.

Also known as Lucidril or Meclofenoxate (brand names), centrophenoxine is available as a dietary supplement usually consumed in powder or tablet form.

What Is Centrophenoxine?

Centrophenoxine is made up of two other biochemicals:

• Fimethyl-aminoethanol (DMAE): DMAE is an amine naturally found in the brain, albeit in small amounts.
• Parachlorphenoxyacetic acid (PCPA): PCPA is a synthetic auxin. Auxins are plant hormones that stimulate growth.

DMAE by itself is not easily absorbed, however, when it is combined with PCPA to produce centrophenoxine it is much more bioavailable and better transported to the brain. Hence although DMAE is sold by itself, to maximize the benefits, you are better off consuming it as centrophenoxine.

Animal studies have proven this discrepancy; researchers found DMAE to be half as potent as centrophenoxine when it comes to elevating choline levels. Additionally, the combination also appears to boost acetylcholine (more on this soon).

DMAE is found naturally in fatty fish such as sardines, salmon and anchovies. This is part of the reason old wives’ tales refer to fish as ‘brain food’.

How Does It Work

There are a number of mechanisms that have been explored in animal studies to account for the cognitive and anti-aging benefits of centrophenoxine.

Centrophenoxine As A “Neuro-Energizer”

Researchers have labeled Centrophenoxine as a neuro-energizer due to its ability to enhance alternative pathways of glucose metabolism, the way in which cells convert glucose into energy they can use. The more energy the brain has, the better it can perform. Studies have found that centrophenoxine can stimulate glucose uptake and oxygen consumption in vitro (brain slices) and in vivo (living organisms) (1).

Another study found that centrophenoxine increased the brain electrical activity in aged mice as further evidence of its neuro-energizer properties (2).

Centrophenoxine And Acetylcholine

Centrophenoxine is a cholinergic compound. Other cholinergic compounds include acetylcholine, which is a main neurotransmitter in the human brain. Acetylcholine is important for a number of cognitive functions including learning, memory formation, attention and motivation.

Choline is a precursor to the important Acetylcholine. The body can make some choline, however, the majority is consumed via food such as eggs, meat and spinach. Highly processed ‘junk-foods’ are typically low in choline. Due to the western diet many people may be low in choline, which can be harmful to health. Supplementing with centrophenoxine is a very efficient way of elevating choline levels because of its improved bioavailability compared to other options.

Rat studies have indicated that centrophenoxine supplementation can significantly elevate choline levels in the central nervous system. Moreover, these elevated choline levels were accompanied by elevated acetylcholine in the hippocampus (3). The hippocampus is located in the brain and is an area associated with memory, mainly long-term memory.

As centrophenoxine induces alterations of the CNS metabolism, it is likely to exert its effects partially by increasing the levels of acetylcholine in the brain

Centrophenoxine Protects Cells From Oxidative Damage

This mechanism has multiple benefits by its modulation of age-related oxidative damage and oxidative damage due to toxin exposure.

Anti-Aging Effects By Combating Oxidative Stress

Free radicals are byproducts of oxygen metabolism, the process by which cells obtain energy. Cells in the brain have high-energy requirements and undergo high rates of oxygen consumption. This free radical damage is presumed to be responsible for the degenerative effects of ageing on the brain. With amounting evidence that free radical-induced oxidative damage plays a role in degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, it’s something to be minimized if possible (4).

Supplementing with an antioxidant that works as a ‘free radical scavenger’ could be one way to combat the harmful effects of oxygen metabolism. Animal studies have shown that supplementing with centrophenoxine is effective in increasing the activity of antioxidant compounds in the brain, and so it might be beneficial for an aging brain (5).

Fights Buildup Of Toxins In The Brain

Aluminum is widely known to be a neurotoxin that could cause neurodegeneration. Aluminum is also associated with Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and multiple sclerosis (6).

The main factors of aluminum exposure in humans are the environment, occupational and dietary (through food, food additives, contamination through utensils). Aluminum affects > 200 biological reactions, including many in the brain, and can alter gene expression (6).  

It’s no doubt that excessive aluminum exposure can be harmful, and for some occupations and lifestyles reducing contact is tricky or not achievable. An animal study explored how administration of centrophenoxine could reverse aluminum-induced alteration of chemical reactions in the brain. The rats that were administered aluminum had significantly decreased levels of reduced glutathione, an antioxidant especially important for cellular defense against aluminum toxicity. However, those who were then treated with centrophenoxine for 6 weeks had a significant improvement in these levels. Interestingly, those who were just administered centrophenoxine alone also had an increase in reduced glutathione levels (7).

These findings indicate that centrophenoxine may prevent aluminum-induced cellular damage by improving the levels of reduced glutathione and hence it has antioxidant potential.

Helps Age-Related Decline Thorough Moderation Of Lipofuscin Concentration

Lipofuscin are yellow-brown pigment granules, mainly composed of lipid but also containing sugars and heavy metal waste like aluminum. They appear to be the result of unsaturated fatty acid oxidation and their concentration increases with age.

Sometimes referred to as ‘cellular trash’ or ‘age pigments’ they accumulate in important areas of the body including the liver, kidneys and adrenals, heart and of course the brain.  Accumulation of lipofuscin is thought to be a result of an imbalance in formation and dispersal mechanisms. 

There is evidence that these granules are a driver for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s (8).

Multiple nootropics appear to reduce the accumulation of lipofuscin in the brain tissue, including centrophenoxine.

Animal studies have shown that treatment with centrophenoxine is correlated a reduction of neuronal lipofuscin pigment in both the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus in older mice (16-24 months in mice age). When the memory and learning of the mice was tested, by making them go through a maze, those who had been treated with centrophenoxine learned faster than those who hadn’t (9) (10).

Centrophenoxine And Genes – Increases mRNA Synthesis

RNA is an important molecule; it carries information on protein sequence from the DNA to the other parts of our cells where proteins are made. Simply put- DNA holds our information and mRNA carries it.

Age is associated with a decline of mRNA production. With age, mRNA is susceptible to oxidative damage, which ultimately results in diminishing levels of protein synthesis, cell damage/death (11).

One study measured mRNA synthesis in the brain of female rates by radioisotope technique. Compared to 1.5 and 13-month old rats the older group (26 months) had a considerable decrease in the synthesis rate of mRNA. However, this decline was reversed with centrophenoxine supplementation. The synthesis rates in the older rats were restored to almost that of the adult ones (12).

This is another example of how the antioxidant properties of centrophenoxine are beneficial in the brain.

Pre-Clinical Studies 

Animal behavioral studies have shown potential for Centrophenoxine to improve memory, particularly in aged brains.

In one-study female mice ages 11-12 months (old in mice years) were given centrophenoxine for 3 months and their learning and memory tested using a T-maze. They compared the number of trials to complete the maze between 20 treated mice, 20 untreated mice the same age and 20 younger untreated mice. The mice that received the treatment learned the maze with significantly fewer trials than those who didn’t receive the treatment (13).

Other studies have shown that centrophenoxine improves learning and memory in those with memory impairment (14).

Centrophenoxine may even help those who have suffered a stroke. A study used rats with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion induced deficits. It sounds complicated, however it just refers to one of the major consequences of a stroke. It is associated with cognitive impairment, and in rats this is exhibited by a longer time to escape a Morris water maze. The rat’s memory was improved by administration of centrophenoxine, alongside a number of other measurable benefits such as returning pro-inflammatory mediators to their normal levels and reducing neuronal damage (15).

This indicates that centrophenoxine may not only be useful for those who have suffered a stroke, but also for those with cerebrovascular type dementia. 

Both centrophenoxine and DMAE have been found to increase the lifespan of mice from somewhere between 30-50% (16).

Human Clinical Evidence For Centrophenoxine

So there is amounting pre-clinical evidence on how centrophenoxine can produce physiological changes in the central nervous system and mechanisms for its benefit to cognitive function. However, is this shown in clinical evidence? Do human trials show benefits?  

Centrophenoxine For Anti-Aging

As mentioned above, we know the potential for centrophenoxine to combat age-related decline due to its lipofuscin clearing and free radical scavenging properties. 

One double-blinded, randomized controlled trial looked at 9 months of centrophenoxine treatment in 74 elderly people. Those who received the centrophenoxine therapy performed better than the placebo group in the measure of delayed free-recall. This is the process of moving new memories into the long-term memory bank. However 5 other measures of memory were also compared, and none of these 5 had any significant improvement in the centrophenoxine group compared to the control (17).

Centrophenoxine For Relieving The Symptoms Of ADHD

In the 70s a trial was conducted using DMAE (main component of centrophenoxine to treat ADHD in children) (18).

74 children with learning problems and hyperactivity were included in this double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. After 3 months the researchers found that DMAE improved the performance of children with behavioral disorders.

As most applications of centrophenoxine are geared towards the elderly, it’s worth noting that its benefits also extend to younger individuals.

Centrophenoxine For Neurodegenerative Diseases

A double-blinded clinical trial in Hungary included 50 participants, all-suffering from dementia with an average age of 77 years. The intervention group was administered 2g of centrophenoxine (a relatively high dose). Centrophenoxine was found to rehydrate the intracellular mass, which is consistent with the ‘free radical scavenger’ hypothesis. Further proving that centrophenoxine is a powerful antioxidant (19).

Another study looked at the use to two nootropics for the treatment of senile Alzheimer type dementia. It included 63 people around 70 years of age, all suffering from mild to moderate dementia. They were treated with one of two nootropics (one being centrophenoxine). Each individual’s results after 3 months were compared to their baseline results however it was not placebo controlled.

Both nootropic treatments showed a significant improvement over baseline. Measurements improved included attention, concentration, memory, performance IQ and full IQ; moreover, the deterioration index (assessment for dementia decline) was diminished.    

Although this study did not include a placebo, it still provides evidence for the use of centrophenoxine in improving the cognitive function of those with dementia (20).

How To Take Centrophenoxine

Centrophenoxine comes as a powder and capsule, usually capsules are 200 – 400 mg. A typical therapeutic dose used in clinical trials is 600 – 2000 mg/day

It is usually taken in higher doses for lipofuscin clearance, hence if taking to reverse signs of aging, high doses for a shorter period (such as a month) is the norm. Otherwise, as a general cognitive enhancer, more moderate doses for a longer period of time are utilized.

Studies have shown that the lipofuscin clearance properties are generally only effective in older brains; hence for younger individuals a smaller dose should suffice.

Many centrophenoxine users report that they feel discomfort if they don’t take it with food (in particular heartburn), it may also absorb better or faster if taken with a meal.

Like other nootropic compounds, it’s also a good idea to start with a low dose and increase gradually as individuals can have different resistance levels. Likewise splitting the dose between morning and midday is another way to ease into it. Taking it late at night should be avoided as it may disrupt sleeping patterns.  

Taking too much centrophenoxine or a long period of time can result in a buildup of acetylcholine and result in associated unpleasant side effects. To avoid this, cycling doses is recommended, usually one 5 days on 2 days off.

Stacking of nootropic compounds is done to augment their benefits. Stacking of centrophenoxine is usually done with Racetams, such as Oiracetam, Aniracetam and Piracetam. For example, centrophenoxine can be the source of choline that is required by Piracetam. Headaches associated with Piracetam due to low choline levels might be minimized with this stack.

What Does It Feel Like?

Most nootropic users take centrophenoxine in the morning for a brain boost in order to improve memory. Most reviews on amazon include comments on its ability to relieve forgetfulness, improve recall and a number mention relief from ‘senior moments’.   

A number of reviews mention depression, usually reported within the first few weeks of taking it and going away on when stopping usage.

Another recurring comment is people remarking on its effectiveness straight away, feeling less forgetful even after the first dose.  

Possible Side Effects

The most common side effects of taking centrophenoxine include: 

• Stomach discomfort
• Body odor
• Drowsiness
• Confusion
• Increased blood pressure
• Moderate depression
• Heartburn
• Irritability

If taking centrophenoxine you should be aware of its potential depressive properties and stop taking it straight away if you suspect your mental health is suffering.

Centrophenoxine should also be avoided entirely in those who suffer from epilepsy, bipolar disorder and major depression as too much acetylcholine can worsen these conditions

Centrophenoxine is also a teratogen, an agent that can cause birth defects. Hence, women who are pregnant or trying to become pregnant should avoid it entirely.

In a Chinese 24 male volunteers were given a 200 mg dose of centrophenoxine in the form of a tablet for one week followed by 200 mg in a capsule, with a washout period of one-week in-between. Although this was just a small study, no adverse effects were reported and it was deemed to be tolerable (21).  

Summary

Centrophenoxine is one of the oldest used Nootropics; it exhibits its benefits via a number of mechanisms extensively explored in animal models. This list includes centrophenoxine boosting neurotransmitter function, removing cellular waste, improving brain energy, and impacting mRNA synthesis.

If you are looking to boost your memory, recall things more easily and generally feel sharper, then adding centrophenoxine to your nootropic stack could be an option you consider. As with any new nootropic, increase the dose gradually and be aware of any harmful side effects you could be susceptible to.

If you are interested in reversing or preventing age-related cognitive decline centrophenoxine could also be for you. Lipofuscin clearance usually requires a larger dose so take this into account.

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